sequently followed by many; and hence arose a new sect of philosophers, who assumed the denomination of Theosophists, and who, placing little confidence in the decisions of human reason, or the efforts of speculation, attributed all to divine illumination and repeated experience.

The method

theology im

IX. This revolution in philosophy and literature, together with the spirit of emulation that animated the difof teaching ferent sects or classes into which the learned men proved. of this age were divided, produced many happy effects of various kinds. It in a more particular manner brought into disrepute, though it could not at once utterly eradicate, that intricate, barbarous, and insipid method of teaching theology that had universally prevailed hitherto in all the schools and pulpits of Christendom. The sacred writings, which, in the preceding ages, had been either entirely neglected, or very absurdly explained, were now much more consulted and respected in the debates and writings of the Christian doctors than they had formerly been; the sense and language of the inspired writers were more carefully studied and more accurately unfolded; the doctrines and precepts of religion taught with more method, connexion, and perspicuity; and that dry, barren, and unaffecting language, which the ancient schoolmen affected so much in their theological compositions, was wholly exploded by the wiser part of the divines of this century. It must not however be imagined, that this reformation of the schools was so perfect, as to leave no new improvements to be made in succeeding ages; this indeed was far from being the case. Much imperfection yet remained in the method of treating theology, and many things which had great need of a correcting hand, were left untouched. It would nevertheless be either an instance of ingratitude, or a mark of great ignorance, to deny this age the honour of having begun what was afterward more happily finished, and of having laid the foundation of that striking superiority, which the divines of succeeding ages obtained over those of ancient times.

r See, for an ample account of the lives, transactions, and systems of these philosophers, Brucker's Historia Critica Philosophia.

us spirit

tian religion

x. Nor did the improvements, which have been now mentioned, as proceeding from the restoration of and the geniletters and philosophy, extend only to the me- of the Christhod of conveying theological instruction, but pu- better ex rified moreover the science of theology itself. For plained. the true nature, genius, and design of the Christian religion, which even the most learned and pious doctors of antiquity had but imperfectly comprehended, were now unfolded with evidence and precision, and drawn, like truth, from an abyss in which they had hitherto lain too much concealed. It is true, the influence of error was far from being totally suppressed, and many false and absurd doctrines are still maintained and propagated in the Christian world. But it may nevertheless be affirmed, that the Christian societies, whose errors at this day are the most numerous and extravagant, have much less absurd and perverse notions of the nature and design of the gospel, and the duties and obligations of those that profess it, than were entertained by those doctors of antiquity, who ruled the church with an absolute authority, and were considered as the chief oracles of theology. It may farther be observed, that the reformation contributed much to soften and civilize the manners of many nations, who, before that happy period, were sunk in the most savage stupidity, and carried the most rude and unsociable aspect. It must indeed be confessed, that a variety of circumstances combined to produce that lenity of character, and that milder temperature of manners, maxims, and actions that discovered themselves gradually, and increased from day to day, in the greatest part of the European nations after the period that Luther rendered so famous. It is nevertheless evident, beyond all contradiction, that the disputes concerning religion, and the accurate and rational inquiries into the doctrines and duties of Christianity, to which these disputes gave rise, had a great tendency to eradicate out of the minds of men that ferocity that had been so long nourished by the barbarous suggestions of unmanly superstition. It is also certain, that at the very dawn of this happy revolution in the state of Christianity, and even before its salutary effects were manifested in all their extent, pure religion had many sincere and fervent votaries, though they were concealed from public view by the multitude of fanatics with which they were surrounded on all sides.

SECTION III.

PARTICULAR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.

1.

pontiff, how

PART I.

HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT CHURCHES.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF THE ROMAN OR LATIN CHURCH.

THE Roman or Latin church is a system of government, whose jurisdiction extends to a great part The Roman of the known world, though its authority has been elected. circumscribed within narrower limits since the happy revolution that, in many places, delivered Christianity from the yoke of superstition and spiritual tyranny. This system of ecclesiastical policy, extensive as it is, is under the direction of the bishop of Rome alone, who by virtue of a sort of hereditary succession, claims the authority, prerogatives, and rights of St. Peter, the supposed prince of the apostles, and gives himself out for the supreme head of the universal church, the vicegerent of Christ upon earth. This lordly ruler of the church is, at this time, elected to his high office by the chosen members of the Roman clergy, who bear the ancient denomination of cardinals. Of these, six are bishops within the precincts of Rome; fifty are ministers of the Roman churches, and are called priests or presbyters; and fourteen are inspectors of the hospitals and charity houses, and are called deacons. These cardinals, while the papal chair is vacant, and they are employed in the choice of a successor to the deceased pontiff, are shut up, and closely confined in a certain sort of prison, called the conclave, that they may thus be engaged to bring this difficult matter to a speedy conclusion. No person, that is not an Italian by birth, and has not already obtained a place in the college of cardinals, is capable of being raised to the head of the church; nor have all

b

the Italian cardinals the privilege of aspiring to this high office. Some are rendered incapable of filling the papal chair by the place of their birth, others by their manner of life, and a few by other reasons of a more incidental nature. It is also to be observed, that the emperor and the kings of France and Spain have acquired, whether expressly by stipulation, or imperceptibly through custom, the privilege of excluding from the number of the candidates for this high office, such as they think proper to oppose or dislike. Hence it often happens, that in the numerous college of cardinals, a very small number are permitted, upon a vacancy, to aspire at the papacy; the greatest part being generally prevented by their birth, their character, their circumstances, and by the force of political intrigues, from flattering themselves with the pleasing hope of ascending that towering summit of ecclesiastical power and dominion.

the pope limit

II. It must not be imagined, that the personal power and authority of the Roman pontiff are circumscribed by no limits; since it is well known, that in all The power of his decisions relating to the government of the ed. church, he previously consults the brethren, i. e. the cardinals who compose his ministry or privy council. Nay more, in matters of religious controversy and doctrine, he is obliged to ask the advice and opinion of eminent divines, in order to secure his pretended infallibility from the suggestions of error. Beside this, all matters that are not of

a See Jo. Frid. Mayeri Commentarius de Electione Pontif. Romani, published in 4to. at Hamburg, in the year 1691. The ceremonial observed in the election and installation is amply described by Meuschenius, in a work published at Franckfort in the year 1732, under the following title; Ceremoniale Electionis et Coronationis Pontificis Romani.

b The great obstacle that prevents several cardinals from aspiring at the pontificate, is what they call at Rome, il peccato originale, or original sin. This mark of exclusion belongs to those who are born subjects of some crown, or republic, which is not within the bounds of Italy, or which are upon a footing of jealousy with the court of Rome. Those also who were made cardinals by the nomination of the kings of France or Spain, or their adherents, are also included in this imputation of original sin, which excludes from the papal chair. The accidental circumstances that exclude certain cardinals from the pontificate, are their being born princes or independent sovereigns, or their declaring themselves openly in favour of certain courts, or their family's being too numerous, or their morals being irregular. Even youth, and a good complexion and figure, are considered as obstacles. But all these maxims and rules vary and change according to the inconstant and precarious impulse of policy and faction.

For an account of the different methods of electing the pope, whether by compromise, inspiration, scrutiny, or access, by which latter is meant a second election, employed when the other methods fail; see Aymon, Tableau de la Cour de Rome, edit. 2de, p. 40, &c.

the highest moment and importance, are divided, according to their respective nature, into certain classes, and left to the management of certain colleges, called congregations, in

Pc These congregations are as follow; I. The Congregation of the Pope, instituted first by Sixtus V. to prepare the matters that were to be brought before the consistory, at which the pontiff is always present. Hence this is called the consistorial congregation, and in it are treated all affairs relative to the erection of bishoprics and cathedral churches, the reunion or suppression of episcopal sees, the alienation of church goods, and the taxes and annates that are imposed upon all benefices in the pope's giving. The cardinal dean presides in this assembly. II. The Congregation of the Inquisition, or, as it is otherwise called, of the holy office, instituted by Paul III. which takes cognizance of heresies, apostacy, magic, and profane writings, which assemble thrice in the week, and every Thursday in presence of the pope, who presides in it. The office of grand inquisitor, which encroached upon the prerogatives of the pontiff, has been long suppressed, or rather distributed among the cardinals who belong to this congregation, and whose decisions come under the supreme cognizance of his holiness. III. The Congregation for the Propagation of the Roman Catholic Faith, founded under the pontificate of Gregory XV. composed of eighteen cardinals, one of the secretaries of state, a prothonotary, a secretary of the inquisition, and other members of less rank. Here it is that the deliberations are carried on which relate to the extirpation of heresy, the appointment of missionaries, &c. This congregation has built a most beautiful and magnificent palace in one of the most agreeable situations that could be chosen at Rome, where proselytes to popery from foreign countries are lodged and nourished gratis, in a manner suitable to their rank and condition, and instructed in those branches of knowledge to which the bent of their genius points. The prelates, curates, and vicars also, who are obliged, without any fault of theirs to abandon the places of their residence, are entertained charitably in this noble edifice in a manner proportioned to their station in the church. IV. The Congregation designed to explain the Decisions of the council of Trent. V. The Congregation of the Index, whose principal business is to examine manuscripts and books that are designed for publication, to decide whether the people may be permitted to read them, to correct those books whose errors are not numerous, and which contain useful and salutary truths, to condemn those whose principles are heretical and pernicious, and to grant the peculiar privilege of perusing heretical books to certain persons. This congregation, which is sometimes held in the presence of the pope, but generally in the palace of the cardinal president, has a more extensive jurisdiction than that of the inquisition, as it not only takes cognizance of those books that contain doctrines contrary to the Roman catholic faith, but of those also that concern the duties of morality, the discipline of the church, and the interests of society. Its name is derived from the alphabetical tables, or indexes of heretical books and authors, which have been composed by its appointment. VI. The Congregation for maintaining the Rights and Immunities of the Clergy and of the Knights of Malta. This congregatian was formed by Urban VIII. to decide the disputes and remove the difficulties and inconveniences that arose from the trial of ecclesiastics, before princes, or other lay judges. VII. The Congregation relating to the Bishops and Regular Clergy, instituted by Sixtus V. to decide the debates which arise between the bishops and their diocessans, and to compose the differences that happened so frequently among the monastic orders. VIII. The Congregation, appointed by Gregory XIV. for examining into the capacity and learning of the bishops. IX. Another for inquiring into their lives and morals. X. A third for obliging them to reside in their diocesses, or to dispense them from that obligation. XI. The Congregation for suppressing monasteries, i. e. such whose revenues are exhausted, and who thereby become a charge upon the public. XII. The Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation, which names the visiters who perform the duties and visitations of the churches and convents within the district of Rome, to which the pope is obliged as archbishop of that city. XIII. The Congregation of Relics, designed to examine the marks, and to augment the number of these instruments of superstition. XIV. The Congregation of Indulgences, designed to examine the case of those who have recourse to this method of quieting the conscience. XV. The Congregation of Rites, which Sixtus V. appointed to regulate and invent the religious ceremonies that are to be observed in the worship of each new saint that is added to the Calendar.

These are the congregations of cardinals, set apart for administering the spiritual affairs of the church; and they are undoubtedly, in some respects, a check upon the power of the pontiff, enormous as it may be. There are six more, which relate to the