CHAPTER IV. OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. See Vol. ii. Part 5. Exercises. Figures of Speech. Chap. 4. THE FOURTH requisite of a perfect sentence, is a judicious use of the Figures of Speech. As figurative language is to be met with in almost every sentence; and, when properly employed, confers beauty and strength on composition; some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to the scholars, who are learning to form their sentences with perspicuity, accuracy, and force. shall, therefore, enumerate the principal figures, and give them some explanation. In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure from simplicity of expression; the idea which we mean to convey is expressed in a particular manner, and with some circumstance added, which is designed to render the impression more strong and vivid. When I say, for instance, "That a good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity;" I just express my thoughts in the simplest manner possible: but when I say, "To the upright there ariseth light in darkness;" the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style; a new circumstance is introduced; "light," is put in the place of "comfort," and "darkness" is used to suggest the idea of "adversity." In the same manner, to say, "It is impossible, by any search we can make, to explore the Divine Nature fully," is to make a simple proposition: but when we say, "Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection? It is high as heaven, what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou know?" this introduces a figure into style; the proposition being not only expressed, but with it admiration and astonish ment. But, though figures imply a deviation from what may be reckoned the most simple form of speech, we are not thence to conclude, that they imply any thing uncommon, or unnatural. On many occasions, they are both the most natural, and the most common method of uttering our sentiments. It would be very difficult to compose any discourse, without using them often; nay, there are few sentences of considerable length, in which there does not occur some expression that may be termed a figure. This being the case, we may see the necessity of some attention, in order to understand their nature and use. At the commencement of language, men would begin with giving names to the different objects, which they discerned, or thought of. The stock of words would, then, be very small. As men's ideas multiplied, and their acquaintance with objects increased, their store of names and words would also increase. But to the vast variety of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No language is so copious, as to have a separate word for every separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge this labour of multiplying words without end: and, in order to lay less burden on their memories, made one word, which they had already appropriated to a certain idea or object, stand also for some other idea or object, between which and the primary one, they found, or fancied, some relation. The names of sensible objects were the words most early introduced; and were, by degrees, extended to those mental objects, of which men had more obscure conceptions, and to which they found it more difficult to assign distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of some sensible idea, where their imagination found some affinity. Thus, we speak of a piercing judgment, and a clear head; a soft or a hard heart; a rough or a smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, warmed by love, swelled with pride, melted into grief; and these are almost the only significant words which we have for such ideas. The principal advantages of figures of speech are the two following. FIRST, they enrich language, and render it more copious. By their means, words and phrases are multiplied, for expressing all sorts of ideas: for describing even the minutest differences: the nicest shades and colours of thought; which no language could possibly do by proper words alone without assistance from Tropes. SECONDLY, They frequently give us a much clearer and more striking view of the principal object, than we could have, if it were expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory idea. By a well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and the impression of a truth upon the mind, made more lively and forcible than it would otherwise be. We perceive this, in the following illustration of Young; "When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and noxious:" and in this instance: "A heart boiling with violent passions, will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." An image that presents so much congruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce belief. Figures, in general, may be described, to be that language, which is prompted either by the imagination, or by the pas sions. They have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of Words, and Figures of Thought. The former, Figures of Words, are commonly called Tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something, which is different from its original and primitive meaning; so that if we alter the word, we destroy the figure: as in the instance before given: "Light ariseth to the upright, in darkness." The other class, termed Figures of Thought, supposes the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning, and the Figure to consist in the turn of the thought; as is the case in exclamations, interrogations, apostrophes, comparisons, &c. The distinction of these ornaments of language, into Tropes and Figures, does not appear to be of much use, nor is it always to be clearly ascertained. Figurés of Imagination, and Figures of Passion, might be a more correct and useful distribution of the subject. Having considered the general nature of figures, we proceed next to particularize such of them as are of the most impor tance: viz. A METAPHOR is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to simile or comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison, expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state, like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison: but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the pillar of the state," it now becomes a metaphor. In the latter case, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. If we compare human life to a landscape, in which are weeds, gardens, hills, valleys, open fields, plantations, we form a VOL. I. 45 simile but if, with Pope, we affirm that human life is actually a scene of all these objects, we form a picturesque and instrucmetaphor. "Let us (since life can little else supply, Try what the open, what the covert yield; The following are examples of metaphor taken from Scripture: "I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the glory in the midst of her." "Thou art my rock and my fortress." 66 Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path." The utility and beauty of metaphors may be farther illustra ted, by another example taken from a distinguished author; and by contrasting his highly ornamented expressions, with that tame and simple phraseology, in which, perhaps, a writer of inferior genius would have communicated his thoughts. The example is as follows: "Banish all your imaginary, and you will suffer no real wants. The little stream that is left, will suffice to quench the thirst of nature; and that which cannot be quenched by it, is not your thirst, but your distemper." The following are the same sentiments in plain language: "Restrict your desires to the satisfaction of the real wants of nature. A small portion of the good things of this world, is sufficient for that purpose: if you desire more, you have not yet learned that moderation which constitutes true happiness." In the latter phraseology, the ideas remain, the understanding is instructed, and wisdom is perhaps instilled; but the ornament is all fled, the imagination is neglected, and the heart is not impressed. Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 1. Metaphors, as well as other figures, should on no occasion, be stuck on profusely; and should always be such as accord with the strain of our sentiment. The latter part of the following passage, from a late historian, is in this respect, very exceptionable. He is giving an account of the famous act of parliament against irregular marriages in England. "The bill," At says he, "underwent a great number of alterations and amendments, which were not effected without violent contest. length, however, it was floated through both houses on the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe harbour of royal approbation.' 2. Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is the foundation of the metaphor, be clear and perspicuous, not far. fetched, nor difficult to discover. The transgression of this rule makes what are called harsh or forced metaphors; which are displeasing, because they puzzle the reader, and instead of illustrating the thought, render it perplexed and intricate. 3. In the third place, we should be careful, in the conduct of metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together. An author addressing himself, to the king, says: To thee the world its present homage pays; It is plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the choice of an improper phrase, he would have said, The harvest early, but mature the crop ; and so would have continued the figure which he had begun, Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by employing the lite ral word "praise," when we were expecting something that related to the harvest, the figure is broken, and the two members of the sentence have no suitable correspondence to each other. In the following example, the metaphorical and the literal meaning, are improperly mixed. Dryden, in his introduction to his translation of Juvenal, says, "Thus I was sailing on a vast ocean, before the use of the loadstone or knowledge of the compass, without other help than the polar star of the ancients, and the rules of the French stage among the moderns." Every reader must perceive the incoherence of the transition from the figurative expression, "the polar star of the ancients," to the literal phraseology, "the rules of the French stage among the moderns; and the inconsistency of pretending to navigate the ocean, by the laws of the theatre. The subsequent quotation from Garth, is still more exceptionable. |