Odyssey that he turns. His conclusions may be thus summarised. The fable or theme of an epic must have dignity. It must represent great actions, and involve great issues. Also it must be single and entire; not like a chronicle whose events have no real connection with each other. Further, it must not be too large. The 'Trojan war' would be a subject fulfilling the first two conditions of nobleness and unity, but it would be unmanageable. Homer therefore is content with but one incident in it, the wrath of Achilles; and other events not arising out of this, but necessary for its proper comprehension, are added in episodes. Further, Aristotle praises Homer for the diction and the sentiment of his poems, in which, though he is the first, he has nevertheless attained perfection (πpŵтos kaì ikavŵs); for the truthfulness of his imagination (ψευδή λέγειν ὡς δεῖ); and also for keeping himself in the background and allowing his persons to speak for themselves, and display their various characters.

When therefore later poets undertook to write a heroic poem, it was naturally to Homer that they turned for a model. The point in which they would best be able to follow him would be the management of the plot. Milton is following Homer when he opens his poem with Satan already in Hell, reserving the story of his fall to an episode in later books. But the Homeric poems are so satisfying that all subsequent epic poets have been content to copy them in many less important matters, such as the frequent use of similes and the introduction of mythological machinery, even invoking the assistance of a Muse because Homer does so. Addison in his famous Critique has made a formal comparison between Paradise Lost and the Iliad in regard to their plot, characters, sentiments, and diction. It would be out of place to do so here in the introduction to a single book, but a few remarks may be made in conclusion on the last two points, for which Aristotle especially praises Homer, and on which a reader of even a single book of Paradise Lost will form some opinion. Aristotle praises Homer for the truth of his 'sentiment' (diávola), in other words for his insight into human

nature, and 'sufficient' representation of it. Milton does not attempt any such representation of human nature; the subject of his poem is a theory of human nature, a very different thing. And as theories must vary with different schools of thought, no one theory can command universal sympathy, and so no representation of a theory is likely to command universal interest. Theories are for an age, not for all time. The successor to Homer's praise as the 'sufficient' poet of human nature is not Milton but Shakespeare. What humanity there is in Paradise Lost must be sought in the character of Satan.

The second point for which Aristotle praises Homer is his 'diction.' The simplicity and freshness of the life which is described in the Homeric poems gives a corresponding freshness and directness to the style. Homer's style, as Mr. Arnold says, is rapid, plain in thought, plain in diction, and noble'; and the Greek hexameter has no equal for rapidity and nobleness. Milton's diction is altogether of another kind; it is neither rapid nor straightforward: on the contrary it is learned; words are often used in Latin senses or with a classical reminiscence so that it has even been said that 'an appreciation of Milton is the last reward of consummated scholarship.' But Milton is no whit behind Homer in nobleness, in the sustained dignity of his poem, and his perfect sureness of touch. In a passage already quoted he tells of his early determination 'to fix all the industry and art I could unite to the adorning of my native tongue'; and in the event his art and industry produced a poem of which almost every line is perfect

PARADISE LOST.

The Printer to the Reader.

Courteous Reader, there was no Argument at first intended to the book; but for the satisfaction of many that have desired it, I have procured it, and withal a reason of that which stumbled many others, why the poem rimes not.-S. Simmons.

THE VERSE.

The measure is English heroic verse without rime, as that of 5 Homer in Greek, and of Virgil in Latin; rime being no necessary adjunct or true ornament of poem or good verse, in longer works especially, but the invention of a barbarous age to set off wretched matter and lame metre; graced indeed since by the use of some famous modern poets, carried away by custom, but 10 much to their own vexation, hindrance, and constraint to express many things otherwise, and for the most part worse, than else they would have expressed them. Not without cause therefore, some both Italian and Spanish poets of prime note have rejected rime both in longer and shorter works, as have also long since 15 our best English tragedies; as a thing of itself, to all judicious ears, trivial and of no true musical delight; which consists only in apt numbers, fit quantity of syllables, and the sense variously drawn out from one verse into another; not in the jingling sound of like endings, a fault avoided by the learned ancients 20 both in poetry and all good oratory. This neglect then of rime so little is to be taken for a defect, though it may seem so perhaps to vulgar readers, that it rather is to be esteemed an example set, the first in English, of ancient liberty recovered to heroic poem, from the troublesome and modern bondage of 25 riming.

B

THE ARGUMENT.

THE first Book proposes, first in brief, the whole subject; Man's disobedience, and the loss thereupon of Paradise wherein he was placed: then touches the prime cause of his Fall, the Serpent, or rather Satan in the serpent; who revolting from 5 God, and drawing to his side many legions of angels, was by the command of God driven out of Heaven with all his crew into the great deep. Which action passed over, the Poem hastes into the midst of things, presenting Satan with his angels now fallen into Hell, described here, not in the centre (for heaven and 10 earth may be supposed as yet not made, certainly not yet accursed), but in a place of utter darkness, fitliest called Chaos: here Satan with his angels lying on the burning lake, thunderstruck and astonished, after a certain space recovers, as from confusion; calls up him who next in order and dignity lay by 15 him; they confer of their miserable fall. Satan awakens all his legions, who lay till then in the same manner confounded. They rise; their numbers; array of battle; their chief leaders named, according to the idols known afterwards in Canaan and the countries adjoining. To these Satan directs his speech; 20 comforts them with hope yet of regaining Heaven; but tells them lastly of a new world and new kind of creature to be created, according to an ancient prophecy or report in Heaven : for that angels were long before this visible creation, was the opinion of many ancient Fathers. To find out the truth of this 25 prophecy, and what to determine thereon, he refers to a full council. What his associates thence attempt. Pandemonium the palace of Satan rises, suddenly built out of the deep. The infernal peers there sit in counsel.