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less, when they really are not so. Supposing af law were promulgated, allowing each private person to destroy every man he met, whose longer continuance in the world he judged to be useless; who would not condemn the latitude of such a rale? who does not perceive that it amounts to a permission to commit murder at pleasure? A Similar rule, regulating the right over our own lives, would be capable of the same extension. Beside which, no one is useless for the purpose of this plea, but he who has lost every capacity and opportunity of being useful, together with the posSuality of recovering any degree of either; which is a state of such complete destitution and despair, as cannot, I believe, be predicated of any man living.

Or rather, shall we say that to depart voluntarily out of life, is lawful for those alone who leave none to lament their death? If this consideration is to be taken into the account at all, the subject of debate will be, not whether there are any to sorrow for us, but whether their sorrow for our death will exceed that which we should suffer by coutinuing to live. Now this is a comparison of things so indeterminate in their nature, capable of so different a judgment, and concerning which the judgment will differ so much according to the state of the spirits, or the pressure of any present anxiety, that it would vary little, in hypochondriacal constitutions, from an unqualified license to commit suicide, whenever the distresses which men felt, or fancied, rose high enough to overcome the pain and dread of death. Men are never tempted to destroy themselves but when under the oppression of some grievous uneasiness: the restrictions of the rule therefore ought to apply to these cases. But what effect can we look for from a rule which proposes to weigh our pain against that of another; the misery that is elt, against that which is only conceived; and in so corrupt a balance as the party's own distempered imagination?

In like manner, whatever other rule you assign, it will ultimately bring us to an indiscriminate toleration of suicide, in all cases in which there is danger of its being committed. It remains, there fore, to inquire what would be the effect of such a toleration: evidently, the loss of many lives to the community, of which some might be useful or important; the affliction of many families, and the consternation of all: for mankind must live in continual alarm for the fate of their friends and dearest relations, when the restraints of religion and morality are withdrawn; when every disgust which is powerful enough to tempt men to suicide, shall be deemed sufficient to justify it; and when the follies and vices, as well as the inevitable calamities, of human life, so often make existence a burthen.

A second consideration, and perfectly distinct from the former, is this: by continuing in the world, and in the exercise of those virtues which remain within our power, we retain the opportunity of meliorating our condition in a future state. This argument, it is true, does not in strictness prove suicide to be a crime; but if it supply a motive to dissuade us from committing it, it amounts to much the same thing. Now there is no condition in human life which is not capable of some virtue, active or passive. Even piety and resignation under the sufferings to which we are called, testify a trust and acquiescence in the Di

vine counsels, more acceptable perhaps, than the most prostrate devotion; afford an edifying example to all who observe them; and may hope for a recompense among the most arduous of human virtues. These qualities are always in the power of the miserable; indeed of none but the miserable. The two considerations above stated, belong to all eases of suicide whatever. Beside which general reasons, each case will be aggravated by its own proper and particular consequences; by the duties that are deserted; by the claims that are defrauded; by the loss, affliction, or disgrace, which our death, or the manner of it, causes our family, kindred, or friends; by the occasion we give to many to suspect the sincerity of our moral and religious professions, and, together with ours, those of all others; by the reproach we draw upon our order, calling, or sect; in a word, by a great variety of evil consequences attending upon peculiar situations, with some or other of which every actual case of suicide is chargeable.

I refrain from the common topics of " deserting our post," "throwing up our trust," "rushing uncalled into the presence of our Maker," with some others of the same sort, not because they are common, (for that rather affords a presumption in their favour,) but because I do not perceive in them much argument to which an answer may not easily be given.

Hitherto we have pursued upon the subject the light of nature alone; taking however into the account, the expectation of a future existence, without which our reasoning upon this, as indeed all reasoning upon moral questions, is vain: we proceed to inquire, whether any thing is to be met with in Scripture, which may add to the probability of the conclusions we have been endeavouring to support. And here I acknowledge, that there is to be found neither any express determination of the question, nor suflicient evidence to prove that the case of suicide was in the contemplation of the law which prohibited murder. Any inference, therefore, which we deduce from Scripture, can be sustained only by construction and implication: that is to say, although they who were authorised to instruct mankind, have not decided a question which never, so far as appears to us, came before them; yet I think, they have left enough to constitute a presumption how they would have decided it, had it been proposed or thought of.

What occurs to this purpose, is contained in the following observations:

1. Human life is spoken of as a term assigned or prescribed to us: "Let us run with patience the race that is set before us."-"I have finished my course."-" That I may finish my course with joy.".

."—" Ye have need of patience, that, after ye have done the will of God, ye might receive the promise."-These expressions appear to me inconsistent with the opinion, that we are at liberty to determine the duration of our lives for ourselves. If this were the case, with what propriety could life be called a race that is set before us; or, which is the same thing, "our course;" that is, the course set out or appointed to us? The remaining quotation is equally strong:-"That af ter ye have done the will of God, ye might receive the promise." The most natural meaning that can be given to the words, "after ye have done the will of God," is, after ye have discharged the duties of life so long as God is pleased to continue

you in it. According to which interpretation, the text militates strongly against suicide: and they who reject this paraphrase, will please to propose a better.

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ciple in morality be so, that no one, by his consent, can transfer to another a right which he does not possess himself. It will be equally difficult to account for the power of the state to commit its 2. There is not one quality which Christ and subjects to the dangers of war, and to expose their his apostles inculcate upon their followers so often, lives without scruple in the field of battle; espeor so earnestly, as that of patience under affliction. cially in offensive hostilities, in which the priviNow this virtue would have been in a great mea-leges of self-defence cannot be pleaded with any sure superseded, and the exhortations to it might appearance of truth: and still more difficult to exhave been spared, if the disciples of his religion plain, how in such, or in any circumstances, prohad been at liberty to quit the world as soon as digality of life can be a virtue, if the preservation they grew weary of the ill usage which they re- of it be a duty of our nature. ceived in it.-When the evils of life pressed sore, they were to look forward to a "far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory;" they were to receive them, "as chastenings of the Lord," as intimations of his care and love: by these and the like reflections they were to support and improve themselves under their sufferings; but not a hint has any where escaped of seeking relief in a voluntary death. The following text in particular strongly combats all impatience of distress, of which the greatest is that which prompts to acts of suicide:-"Consider Him that endured such contradiction of sinners against himself, lest ye be wearied and faint in your minds." I would offer my comment upon this passage, in these two queries: first, Whether a Christian convert, who had been impelled by the continuance and urgency of his sufferings to destroy his own life, would not have been thought by the author of this text "to have been weary," to have" fainted in his mind," to have fallen off from that example which is here proposed to the meditation of Christians in distress? And yet, secondly, Whether such an act would not have been attended with all the circumstances of mitigation which can excuse or extenuate suicide at this day?

3. The conduct of the apostles, and of the Christains of the apostolic age, affords no obscure indication of their sentiments upon this point. They lived, we are sure, in a confirmed persuasion of the existence, as well as of the happiness, of a future state. They experienced in this world every extremity of external injury and distress. To die, was gain. The change which death brought with it was, in their expectation, infinitely beneficial. Yet it never, that we can find, entered into the intention of one of them to hasten this change by an act of suicide; from which it is difficult to say what motive could have so universally withheld them, except an apprehension of some unlawfulness in the expedient.

This whole reasoning sets out from one error, namely, that the state acquires its right over the life of the subject from the subject's own consent, as a part of what originally and personally belonged to himself, and which he has made over to his governors. The truth is, the state derives this right neither from the consent of the subject, nor through the medium of that consent; but, as I may say, immediately from the donation of the Deity. Finding that such a power in the sovereign of the community is expedient, if not necessary, for the community itself, it is justly presumed to be the will of God, that the sovereign should possess and exercise it. It is this presumption which constitutes the right; it is the same indeed which constitutes every other and if there were the like reasons to authorise the presumption in the case of private persons, suicide would be as justifiable as war, or capital executions. But until it can be shown that the power over human life may be converted to the same advantage in the hands of individuals over their own, as in those of the state over the lives of its subjects, and that it may be entrusted with equal safety to both, there is no room for arguing, from the existence of such a right in the latter, to the toleration of it in the former.

BOOK V.

DUTIES TOWARDS GOD.

CHAPTER I.

Division of these Duties.

IN one sense, every duty is a duty towards God, since it is his will which makes it a duty: but there are some duties of which God is the object, as well as the author; and these are peculiarly, and in a more appropriated sense, called duties towards God.

Having stated what we have been able to collect in opposition to the lawfulness of suicide, by way of direct proof, it seems unnecessary to open a separate controversy with all the arguments which are made use of to defend it; which would only lead us into a repetition of what has been offered That silent piety, which consists in a habit of already. The following argument, however, being tracing out the Creator's wisdom and goodness in somewhat more artificial and imposing than the the objects around us, or in the history of his rest, as well as distinct from the general consider-dispensations; of referring the blessings we enjoy ation of the subject, cannot so properly be passed to his bounty, and of resorting in our distresses to over. If we deny to the individual a right over his succour; may possibly be more acceptable to his own life, it seems impossible, it is said, to re- the Deity than any visible expressions of devotion concile with the law of nature that right which the whatever. Yet these latter, (which, although they state claims and exercises over the lives of its sub- may be excelled, are not superseded, by the forjects, when it ordains or inflicts capital punish- mer,) compose the only part of the subject which ments. For this right, like all other just authority admits of direction or disquisition from a moralist. in the state, can only be derived from the compact and virtual consent of the citizens which compose the state; and it seems self-evident, if any prin

Our duty towards God, so far as it is external, is divided into worship and reverence. God is the immediate object of both; and the difference

between them is, that the one consists in action, | the other in forbearance. When we go to church on the Lord's day, led thither by a sense of duty towards God, we perform an act of worship: when, from the same motive, we rest in a journey upon that day, we discharge a duty of reverence. Divine worship is made up of adoration, thanksgiving, and prayer.-But, as what we have to offer concerning the two former may be observed of prayer, we shall make that the title of the following chapters, and the direct subject of our

consideration.

CHAPTER II.

2. It may be consistent with the wisdom of the Deity to withhold his favours till they be asked for, as an expedient to encourage devotion in his rational creation, in order thereby to keep up and circulate a knowledge and sense of their dependency upon him.

3. Prayer has a natural tendency to amend the petitioner himself; and thus to bring him within the rules which the wisdom of the Deity has prescribed to the dispensation of his favours.

If these, or any other assignable suppositions, serve to remove the apparant repugnancy between the success of prayer and the character of the Deity, it is enough; for the question with the petitioner is not from which, out of many motives, God may grant his petition, or in what particular manner he is moved by the supplications of his Creatures; but whether it be consistent with his nature to be moved at all, and whether there be any conceivable motives which may dispose the Divine Will to grant the petitioner what he wants,

Of the Duty and of the Efficacy of Prayer, so far as the same appear from the Light of Nature. WHEN one man desires to obtain any thing of another, he betakes himself to entreaty; and this may be observed of mankind in all ages and coun-in consequence of his praying for it. It is suffitries of the world. Now, what is universal, may be called natural; and it seems probable that God, as our supreme governor, should expect that towards himself, which, by a natural impulse, or by the irresistible order of our constitution, he has prompted us to pay to every other being on whom we depend.

The same may be said of thanksgiving. Prayer likewise is necessary to keep up in the minds of mankind a sense of God's agency in the universe, and of their own dependency upon him. Yet, after all, the duty of prayer depends upon its efficacy: for I confess myself unable to conceive, how any man can pray, or be obliged to pray, who expects nothing from his prayers; but who is persuaded, at the time he utters his request, that it cannot possibly produce the smallest impression upon the being to whom it is addressed, or advantage to himself. Now, the efficacy of prayer imports, that we obtain something in consequence of praying, which we should not have received without prayer; against all expectation of which, the following objection has been often and seriously alleged: "If it be most agreeable to perfect wisdom and justice that we should receive what we desire, God, as perfectly wise and just, will give it to us without asking; if it be not agreeable to these attributes of his nature, our entreaties cannot move him to give it us, and it were impions to expect that they should." In fewer words, thus: "If what we request be fit for us, we shall have it without praying; if it be not fit for us, we cannot obtain it by praying." This objection admits but of one answer, namely, that it may be agreeable to perfect wisdom to grant that to our prayers, which it would not have been agreeable to the same wisdom to have given us without praying for. But what virtue, you will ask, is there in prayer, which should make a favour constent with wisdom, which would not have been so without it? To this question, which contains the whole difficulty attending the subject, the following possibilities are offered in reply:

1. A favour granted to prayer may be more apt, on that very account, to produce good effects upon the person obliged. It may hold in the Divine boty, what experience has raised into a proverb in the collation of human benefits, that what is tained without asking, is oftentimes received without gratitude.

cient for the petitioner, that he gain his end. It is not necessary to devotion, perhaps not very consistent with it, that the circuit of causes, by which his prayers prevail, should be known to the petitioner, much less that they should be present to his imagination at the time. All that is necessary is, that there be no impossibility apprehended in the matter.

Thus much must be conceded to the objection: that prayer cannot reasonably be offered to God with all the same views, with which we oftentimes address our entreaties to men (views which are not commonly or easily separated from it,) viz. to inform them of our wants and desires; to tease them out by importunity; to work upon their indolence or compassion, in order to persuade them to do what they ought to have done before, or ought not to do at all.

But suppose there existed a prince, who was known by his subjects to act, of his own accord, always and invariably for the best; the situation of a petitioner, who solicited a favour or pardon from such a prince, would sufficiently resemble ours: and the question with him, as with us, would be, whether, the character of the prince being considered, there remained any chance that he should obtain from him by prayer, what he would not have received without it. I do not conceive that the character of such a prince would necessarily exclude the effect of his subject's prayers; for when that prince reflected that the earnestness and humility of the supplication had generated in the suppliant a frame of mind, upon which the pardon or favour asked would produce a permanent and active sense of gratitude; that the granting of it to prayer would put others upon praying to him, and by that means preserve the the love and submission of his subjects, upon which love and submission their own happiness, as well as his glory, depended; that, beside that the memory of the particular kindness would be heightened and prolonged by the anxiety with which it had been sued for, prayer had in other respects so disposed and prepared the mind of the petitioner, as to render capable of future services him who before was unqualified for any: might not that prince, I say, although he proceeded upon no other considerations than the strict rectitude and expediency of the measure, grant a favour or pardon to this man, which he did not grant to

another, who was too proud, too lazy, or too busy, I prayer would infallibly restore health? In short, too indifferent whether he received it or not, or if the efficacy of prayer were so constant and ob too insensible of the sovereign's absolute power to servable as to be relied upon beforehand, it is easy give or to withhold it, ever to ask for it or even to foresee that the conduct of mankind would, in to the philosopher, who, from an opinion of the proportion to that reliance, become careless and fruitlessness of all addresses to a prince of the cha-disorderly. It is possible, in the nature of things, racter which he had formed to himself, refused in that our prayers may, in many instances, be efhis own example, and discouraged in others, all ficacious, and yet our experience of their efficacy outward returns of gratitude, acknowledgment of be dubious and obscure. Therefore, if the light of duty, or application to the sovereign's mercy or nature instruct us by any other arguments to hope bounty; the disuse of which, (seeing affections do for effect from prayer; still more, if the Scriptures not long subsist which are never expressed) was authorise these hopes by promises of acceptance; followed by a decay of loyalty and zeal amongst it seems not a sufficient reason for calling in queshis subjects, and threatened to end in a forgetful- tion the reality of such effects, that our observaness of his rights, and a contempt of his authority? tions of them are ambiguous; especially since it These, together with other assignable considera- appears probable, that this very ambiguity is netions, and some perhaps inscrutable, and even in-cessary to the happiness and safety of human life. conceivable, by the persons upon whom his will was to be exercised, might pass in the mind of the prince, and move his counsels; whilst nothing, in the mean time, dwelt in the petitioner's thoughts, but a sense of his own grief and wants; of the power and goodness from which alone he was to look for relief; and of his obligation to endeavour, by future obedience, to render that person propitious to his happiness, in whose hands, and at the disposal of whose mercy, he found himself

to be.

But some, whose objections do not exclude alb prayer, are offended with the mode of prayer in use amongst us, and with many of the subjects which are almost universally introduced into public worship, and recommended to private devotion. To pray for particular favours by name, is to dictate, it has been said, to Divine wisdom and goodness: to intercede for others, especially for whole nations and empires, is still worse; it is to presume that we possess such an interest with the Deity, as to be able, by our applications, to bend the most The objection to prayer supposes, that a per- important of his counsels; and that the happiness fectly wise being must necessarily be inexorable: of others, and even the prosperity of communities, but where is the proof, that inexorability is any is to depend upon this interest, and upon our part of perfect wisdom; especially of that wisdom choice. Now, how unequal soever our knowledge which is explained to consist in bringing about of the Divine economy may be to the solution of the most beneficial ends by the wisest means? this difficulty, which requires perhaps a compreThe objection likewise assumes another prin-hension of the entire plan, and of all the ends of ciple, which is attended with considerable difficulty God's moral government, to explain satisfactorily, and obscurity, namely, that upon every occasion we can understand one thing concerning it: that there is one, and only one, mode of acting for the it is, after all, nothing more than the making of best; and that the Divine Will is necessarily de- one man the instrument of happiness and misery termined and confined to that mode: both which to another; which is perfectly of a piece with the positions presume a knowledge of universal na- course and order that obtain, and which we must ture, much beyond what we are capable of at- believe were intended to obtain, in human affairs. taining. Indeed, when we apply to the Divine Why may we not be assisted by the prayers of Nature such expressions as these, "God must other men, who are beholden for our support to always do what is right," "God cannot, from the their labour? Why may not our happiness be moral perfection and necessity of his nature, act made in some cases to depend upon the intercesotherwise than for the best," we ought to apply sion, as it certainly does in many upon the good them with much indeterminateness and reserve; offices, of our neighbours? The happiness and or rather, we ought to confess, that there is some- misery of great numbers we see oftentimes at the thing in the subject out of the reach of our appre-disposal of one man's choice, or liable to be much hension; for, in our apprehension, to be under a necessity of acting according to any rule, is inconsistent with free agency; and it makes no difference which we can understand, whether the necessity be internal or external, or that the rule is the rule of perfect rectitude.

But efficacy is ascribed to prayer without the proof, we are told, which can alone in such a subject produce conviction,-the confirmation of ex

affected by his conduct: what greater difficulty is there in supposing, that the prayers of an individual may avert a calamity from multitudes, or be accepted to the benefit of whole communities?

CHAPTER III.

perience. Concerning the appeal to experience, of the Duty and Efficacy of Prayer as Re

I shall content myself with this remark, that if prayer were suffered to disturb the order of second causes appointed in the universe, too much, or to produce its effects with the same regularity that they do, it would introduce a change into human affairs, which, in some important respects, would be evidently for the worse. Who, for example, would labour, if his necessities could be supplied with equal certainty by prayer? How few would contain within any bounds of moderation those passions and pleasures, which at present are checked only by disease, or the dread of it, if

presented in Scripture.

THE reader will have observed, that the reflections stated in the preceding chapter, whatever truth and weight they may be allowed to contain, rise many of them no higher than to negative arguments in favour of the propriety of addressing prayer to God. To prove that the efficacy of prayers is not inconsistent with the attributes of the Deity, does not prove that prayers are actually efficacious: and in the want of that unequivocal testimony, which experience alone could afford to this point, (but which we do not possess, and have

seen good reason why we are not to expect,) the blessings: "Pray for the peace of Jerusalem."light of nature leaves us to controverted proba-"Ask ye of the Lord rain, in the time of the latter buities, drawn from the impulse by which man- rain; so the Lord shall make bright clouds, and kimi have been almost universally prompted to give them showers of rain, to every one grass in devotion, and from some beneficial purposes, the field."-"I exhort, therefore, that first of all, which, it is conceived, may be better answered by supplications, prayers, intercessions, and giving of the audience of prayer than by any other mode of thanks, be made for all men; for kings, and for communicating the same blessings. The revela- all that are in authority, that we may lead a quiet tions which we deem authentic, completely supply and peaceable life, in all godliness and honesty; this defect of natural religion. They require for this is good and acceptable in the sight of God prayer to God as a duty; and they contain posi- our Saviour." Psalm cxxii. 6; Zech. x. 1; 1 Tim. tive assurance of its efficacy and acceptance. We ii. 1, 2, 3. could have no reasonable motive for the exercise of prayer, without believing that it may avail to the rehef of our wants. This belief can only be founded, either in a sensible experience of the effect of prayer, or in promises of acceptance signised by Divine authority. Our knowledge would have come to us in the former way, less capable indeed of doubt, but subjected to the abuses and inconveniences briefly described above; in the latter way, that is, by authorized significations of God's general disposition to hear and answer the devout supplications of his creatures, we are encouraged to pray, but not place such a dependence upon prayer as might relax other obligations, or confound the order of events and of human expectations.

The Scriptures not only affirm the propriety of prayer in general, but furnish precepts or examples which justify some topics and some modes of prayer that have been thought exceptionable. And as the whole subject rests so much upon the foundation of Scripture, I shall put down at length texts applicable to the five following heads: to the duty and efficacy of prayer in general; of prayer for particular favours by name; for public national blessings; of intercession for others; of the repe-I tition of unsuccessful prayers.

1. Texts enjoying prayer in general: "Ask, and It shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find:-If ye, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your Father, which is in heaven, give good things to them that ask him?"-"Watch ye, therefore, and pray always, that ye may be accounted worthy to escape all those things that shall come to pass, and to stand before the Son of man."-"Serving the Lord, rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation, continuing instant in prayer."-"Be careful for nothing, but in every thing, by prayer and suppication, with thanksgiving, let your requests be made known unto God."-"I will, therefore, that men pray every where, lifting up holy hands without wrath and doubting."-"Pray without ceasing." Matt. vii. 7. 11; Luke xxi. 36; Rom. 12; Phil. iv. 6; 1 Thess. v. 17; 1 Tim. ii. 8. Add to these, that Christ's reproof of the ostentation and prolixity of pharistical prayers, and his recommendation to his disciples, of retirement and mplicity in theirs, together with his dictating a particular form of prayer, all presuppose prayer to be an acceptable and availing service.

4. Examples of intercession, and exhortations to intercede for others:-" And Moses besought the Lord his God, and said, Lord, why doth thy wrath wax hot against thy people? Remember Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, thy servants. And the Lord repented of the evil which he thought to do unto his people.”—“ Peter, therefore, was kept in prison, but prayer was made without ceasing of the church unto God for him."—" For God is my witness, that without ceasing I make mention of you always in my prayers."—" Now I beseech you, bretheren, for the Lord Jesus Christ's sake, and for the love of the Spirit, that ye strive together with me, in your prayers for me.""Confess your faults one to another, and pray one for another, that ye may be healed: the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much." Exod. xxxii. 11; Acts xii. 5; Rom. i. 9. xv. 30; James v. 16.

5. Declarations and examples authorising the repetition of unsuccessful prayer: "And he spake a parable unto them, to this end, that men ought always to pray, and not to faint."-" And he left them, and went away again, and prayed the third time, saying the same words."-" For this thing besought the Lord thrice, that it might depart from me." Luke xviii. 1; Matt. xxvi. 44; 2 Cor. xii. 8.*

CHAPTER IV.

Of Private Prayer, Family Prayer, and
Public Worship.

CONCERNING these three descriptions of devotion, it is first of all to be observed, that each has its separate and peculiar use; and therefore, that the exercise of one species of worship, however regular it be, does not supersede, or dispense with, the obligation of either of the other two.

1. Private Prayer is recommended for the sake of the following advantages:

Private wants cannot always be made the subject of public prayer: but whatever reason there is for praying at all, there is the same for making the sore and grief of each man's own heart the business of his application to God. This must be the office of private exercises of devotion, being imperfectly, if at all, practicable in any other.

found in Scripture. For the same reason they properly reject the invocation of saints; as also because such in

*The reformed Churches of Christendom, sticking 2. Examples of prayer for particular favours close in this article to their guide, have laid aside pray by name:"For this thing" (to wit, some bodilyers for the dead, as authorised by no precept or precedent firmity, which he calls 'a thorn given him in the esh) I besought the Lord thrice, that it might vocations suppose, in the saints whom they address, a depart from me."-"Night and day praying ex-knowledge whichcan perceive what passes in different hingly, that we might see your face, and perfact that which is lacking in your faith." 2 Cor. 18; 1 Thess. iii. 10.

3. Directions to pray for national or public

regions of the earth at the same time. And they deem it too much to take for granted, without the smallest in

timation of such a thing in Scripture, that any created being possesses a faculty little short of that omniscience and omnipresence which they ascribe to the Deity,

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