RAIN. surface disturbing influences draw the trade-winds more or less out of their normal course, and sometimes produce a total reversal, as in the case of the Monsoons (q. v.). These winds determine entirely the rainfall of India, and but for them, the eastern districts of Hindustan would be constantly deluged with rain, and the western parts constantly dry and arid. As it is, each part of South Asia has its dry and wet season, summer being the wet season of the western parts and interior as far as the Himalaya, and winter the wet season of the eastern, and especially south-eastern parts. The heaviest annual rainfall on the globe is 600 inches on the Khasia Hills, about 500 inches of which falls in seven months during the southwest monsoons. This astonishing amount is due to the abruptness of the mountains which face the Bay of Bengal, from which they are separated by 200 miles of low swamps and marshes. The winds not only arrive among the hills heavily charged with the vapour they have absorbed from the wide expanse of the Indian Ocean, but being near the point of saturation, their temperature not being raised in passing over these swamps, they are, so to speak, ready to burst in torrents over the abrupt cliffs which divert them from their horizontal course into the higher regions of the atmosphere. At 20 miles inland, the annual fall is reduced to 200 inches; 30 miles further south, it is only 100 inches; north, at Gowadatty in Assam, it is only 80 inches. In the north-west of the Bay of Bengal, at Cuttack, it is only 50 inches; while in the northeast, in Arracan, owing to the south-west direction of the winds, it is 200 inches. At Madras, the annual fall is 45 inches; at Seringapatam, only 24 inches; at Bombay, 75 inches; at Uttra-Mullay, 263 inches, and at Mahabalishwar, 254 inches, both on the Western Ghauts; and at Poonah inland, 23 inches. The south-west monsoon discharges from 60 to 80 inches of rain over the parts of Hindustan not bounded by high mountains to the west, before reaching the Himalayas, after which it discharges the greater part of its moisture, 120 to 140 inches, on the outer Himalayan range, at elevations of 4000 to 8000 feet. Thus, four times more rain falls annually on the Khasia Hills than on the Himalaya, owing to the less abrupt face these latter mountains present to the south, to the sandy burning plain, which raise the winds considerably above the dew-point, and to the larger tract traversed by the winds, over which their moisture continues to be discharged as they pass. The following are a few of the annual rainfalls in the tropics: Singapore, 97 inches; Canton, 78 inches; St Benoit (Isle of Bourbon), 163 inches; Sierra Leone, 87 inches; Caracas, 155 inches; Pernambuco, 106 inches; Rio Janeiro, 59 inches; Georgetown, 100 inches; Barbadoes, 72 inches; St Domingo, 107 inches; Bahamas, 52 inches; and Vera Cruz, 183 inches. In many places in the interior of continents within the tropics, the rainfall is small-not greater, in fact, than in temperate countries, such as the eastern parts of England. At Poona, only 23 inches fall annually. The periodicity of the rainfall disappears as we recede from the tropics, and the times of the year during which it occurs are different-the greater quantity falling in summer at places within the tropics, but in winter in temperate regions. In respect of the rainfall, Europe may be divided into two distinct regions: Western Europe-extending, though in a modified form, into the interior of the continent -and the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. A vast ocean on the one hand, a great continent on the other, and a predominance of west winds, are the determining circumstances in the distribution of the rainfall over Western Europe. As the south-west winds, which are the return trades, descend and touch the earth's surface south of Europe, and as the whole of this continent is therefore within their influence, it follows that the western parts, especially where mountain-ranges stretch north and south, are rainy districts; for these mountains, diverting the south-west winds from their horizontal course, force them up into the higher regions of the atmosphere, where, chilled, they form into clouds, or deposit in rain the vapour they can no longer hold in suspension. Hence, the rainiest regions of Europe are Norway, Ireland, the west of Great Britain and of France, Spain, and Portugal. At the Stye, in the Lake District, 38.9 inches fell in January 1851; at Drishaig, 33-2 inches, and at Portree, 32-4 in December 1863; and in the same month, from 23 to 30 inches at many other places in the Scottish Highlands. In the west of Great Britain and Ireland, in the vicinity of high hills, the average rainfall is from 80 to 150 inches. At Bergen, in Norway, it is 89 inches; in the Peninsula, at Coimbra, it is 118 inches; at Oviedo, 74 inches; and at St Jago, 73 inches; and in France, it is 51 inches at Nantes, and 49 at Bayonne. At places at some distance from hills, and in more inland districts, the annual fall is much diminished. Thus, in the west of Great Britain, away from hills, it is from 30 to 45 inches; while in the east, it is from 20 to 28 inches. In France, it averages 30 inches; and in the plains of Germany and Russia, 20 inches; while in some parts of Sweden and Russia, it falls as low as 15 inches. In the interior of Europe, in mountainous districts, it rises much above these amounts; thus, at the Brocken, it is 59 inches. An important distinction between the mode of distribution of the rainfall in the west of Europe and that of more inland places is, that the greater part of the annual amount in the west falls in winter; whilst in the interior, this happens in summer. This difference is particularly striking on the different sides of Great Britain, and arises from this circumstance, that as the clouds are much lower in winter, they are arrested and drained of their moisture by the less elevated hills, leaving little to be deposited eastwards; but in summer, being high, they pass above, and discharge themselves in the interior. Thus, for every 10 inches of rain which fall at the following places in winter, there fall in summer respectively 8 inches in the west of Great Britain, 11 inches in the east of Great Britain and west of France, 15 inches in the east of France, 20 inches in Germany, and 27 inches in the north and east of Russia. In The peculiarity of the rainfall of the basin of the Mediterranean depends on its proximity to the burning sands of Africa, a predominance of northerly winds, and the position of the Pyrenees and Spanish sierras to the west, on which the southwest winds discharge their rains before arriving on the north shores of the Mediterranean. the valley of the Rhone, four times more rain falls in autumn than in summer; and south of the Alps, six times more rain falls with the northeast than with the south-west winds, being the reverse of what takes place in England. In Italy, the quantity diminishes as we approach the south. Along the Syrian and North African coasts, it rarely rains in summer, but frequently in winter. In the valley of the Rhone, the annual fall ranges from 20 inches at its mouth to 63 inches at St Rambert, the average being 30 inches. This is also the average of the valley of the Po; but on ascending to the Alps, it rises, as at Tolmezzo, to 96 inches. The rainfall in the west of the American continent is distributed similarly to that of Europe the amount being dependent on the physical RAIN-RAINBOW. configuration of the surface over which the westerly winds blow. The yearly amount increases as we proceed northward; thus, at San Francisco it is 22 inches; at Fort Reading, 29 inches; at Fort Oxford, 72 inches; at Fort Vancouver, 47 inches; at Astoria, 86 inches; at Steilacoom (Wash. Ter.), 54 inches; and at Sitka, in Russian America, 90 inches. But in the United States, the manner of the distribution of the rain is very different from that of Europe. The United States are dependent for their rain not on the Pacific Ocean, but on the Gulf of Mexico. There can be little doubt that, but for the high range of the Rocky Mountains in Central America, the greater part of the States would be an arid waste. These mountains are so high as to present an effectual barrier to the passage of the trade-winds, which blow over the Gulf of Mexico; they are, on this account, turned northward, and spread themselves over the States, especially over the low basin of the Mississippi. These winds being characterised by great heat, and loaded with much moisture from the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, tend to disturb the statical equilibrium of the atmosphere. When they have blown for some time, vast accumulations of heat and moisture take place, the equilibrium is destroyed, a great storm arises in consequence, sweeping eastward over the States, and in many cases crossing the Atlantic, and descending with violence on Western Europe. In the States, the southerly winds preceding the storm give place to the dry north-west winds, which rapidly clear the sky, and bring brilliant bracing weather in their train. It appears, in short, that the south winds from the Gulf of Mexico spread the moisture over the States, and the north-west wind disengages this moisture from them by getting below them, by their greater density, and thrusting them into the higher regions of the atmosphere. If this be the case, as the phenomena seem to warrant, then the heaviest rainfalls will be in the valleys, and the least on the higher grounds-a mode of distribution quite different from what prevails in Europe. And such is really the case, for the greatest amount of rain falls in Florida, the low flats of the Mississippi, then along its valley, and lastly in Iowa, or in that remarkable depression at the head of the river; and the least quantities on the Alleghanies, especially on their higher parts, and, on the high grounds of the Missouri district. The following figures, giving the average annual amount in inches, shew this in a clear light: Pensacola, 57; Fort Brooke, 55; and Fort Pierce, 63-in Florida: Monroeville, 66; and Mobile, 64-in Alabama: Natchez, 58; Jackson, 53-in Mississippi: Rapides, 63; New Orleans, 52 -in Louisiana: Savannah, 48-in Georgia: Nashville, 53-in Tennessee: Fort Madison, 50-in Iowa. At Athens, in Georgia, south of the Alleghanies, the amount is 36 inches; at Alexandria, in Virginia, also 36 inches; and at Jefferson, in Missouri, 38 inches. In the Northern States, the quantity diminishes at most places to between 27 and 45 inches, and the mode of its distribution becomes assimilated to that of Europe. When raindrops fall through a stratum of air below 32°, they become frozen, and form Hail (q. v.). When the vesicles are formed in air under 32°, Snow (q. v.) is the result. RAINBOW. The ordinary phenomena of the rainbow are usually visible on every occurrence of a 'sunny shower,' and we need not describe them particularly until we deduce them, one after another, from their cause. The most careless observation shews us that, for the production of a rainbow, we must have a luminous body of moderate angular diameter, and drops of water; for it is never seen except by direct sun or moon light, and never in a cloud unless rain be falling from it. Now, a falling drop of water takes, by its molecular forces, a spherical form. Also, as there is separation of the various colours of which white light is composed, the cause of the phenomenon must involve Refraction of Light (q. v.), because by Reflection (q. v.) these colours are not separated. But, again, the spectator who views the rainbow has his back to the sun, and rays of light merely refracted by a raindrop could not be thus sent back to the spectator. The phenomenon must therefore depend upon successive reflections and refractions, and we shall investigate in an elementary manner what appearances we ought to expect as the result of such processes according to the known laws of optics; merely premising that the fundamental points of the explanation were first given by Newton in the second book of his Optics. First, then, let us consider what becomes of parallel rays of light, of one colour or refractive index (see REFRACTION), which are successively refracted and reflected in a single spherical raindrop. For our immediate purpose, it is sufficient to suppose that the refractive index (see REFRACTION) of water is; that is, the incident and refracted rays make with the perpendicular to the refracting surface of water, angles whose sines are in the ratio of 4 to 3. Let the circle represent a section of the drop made by any plane passing through its centre O, and the line SO, which joins its centre with the The sun; the sun being supposed, for the moment, to be a single luminous point, situated at so great a distance that lines drawn to it from different points of the drop are parallel. A ray of light, SB, falling on the drop in the plane of section will be, of course, partly reflected and partly refracted at B. reflected part does not concern us, as in it all colours would travel together; and, in fact, the result of reflection from the external surfaces of the drops is simply to illuminate the background feebly. Join OB, and produce it to Q. Then the refracted ray (see REFRACTION) will have in the drop the direction BA, where the ratio of the sines of SBQ and OBA is the refractive index of wateri. e., 4:3 nearly. Arriving at A, the ray will be partly refracted in some such direction as AD, and the rest reflected in the direction AC. Now AD RAINBOW. obviously cannot fall on the eye of a spectator whose back is turned to the sun, and it has, therefore, nothing to do with the rainbow. The internally reflected ray, AC, on reaching the surface at C, is partly refracted in the direction CT (where BS and CT are symmetrically situated on opposite sides of OA), and partly reflected internally. The latter portion we must consider when we come to the cause of the secondary, or outer rainbow, the former is that which at present concerns us. Let SB1, SB2, be other incident rays. After a refraction, a reflection, and a second refraction, they emerge in the directions CT, CT, respectively. From the figure, which is drawn from calculation, it is obvious that both CT, and CT, are less inclined to OS than CT is. Hence for rays, parallel to SO, falling on the drop, and emerging after suffering two refractions and a reflection, the final direction is more and more inclined to SO, as the point of incidence, B1, is further from P, at least up to some such point as B; after which (for points situated as B2) it diminishes again. By proper mathematical methods, it is easy to find that the angle SOB is about 59' 24', if the refractive index be. Now, by a general property of maxima or minima in optics (see CAUSTIC), the rays falling on the drop near to B will emerge nearly parallel to CT; while those incident near any other point (as B1) will be widely scattered at emergence. And we may evidently extend this reasoning to all other rays by supposing the above figure to rotate about the axis SO. The conclusion is, therefore, that if homogeneous light fall in parallel lines on the spherical drop, those rays which have been twice refracted at the surface, and once internally reflected, will, on emergence, all lie within the cone formed by the revolution of CT about SO, and will be condensed towards the surface of that cone. Hence such an illuminated drop gives off by this particular process a solid cone of rays, much condensed towards its external boundaries. So much for each drop. Next, let us inquire | what the appearance will be to an eye in any given position. Referring to the next figure, in which (within the cone), it will receive diffused rays from the drop; if at E, (outside the cone), it will receive no light at all. To put this in a simpler form: Draw E,F, and E,F, parallel to TC; then we may evidently say that the eye receives a condensed light from any drop whose angular distance from the point opposite the sun is CTS', a diffused light if the angular distance be less than this, and none at all if it be greater. By methods already alluded to, it is found that CTS' is nearly 42° 12′ for the index of refraction 4. Hence, if the sun were a luminous point, emitting homogeneous light whose index of refraction in water is, a spectator looking through a shower of falling raindrops towards the point immediately opposite to the sun, would see a bright circle of angular diameter 84° 24′ surrounding this point, diffused light within that circle, and darkness without it. The effect of the finite angular diameter of the sun is evidently to widen this circle into a circular luminous band, whose breadth is the sun's apparent diameter, and whose mean radius is 42° 12'. Next, let us consider the different refrangibilities of the coloured constituents of white light. The investigation above hinted at shews that the radius of the luminous circular band is greater, the less the refractive index; the proof, though very simple, would be out of place in this work. Hence the appearance actually observed with sunlight will be formed by the superposition of concentric, overlapping, circular bands, the radii being less and less as we consider the primary colours in the order from red to violet (see SPECTRUM). That is, we shall have a circular illuminated space, brightest towards the edge, with a homogeneous red ring as its external boundary, and a gradual mixture of the prismatic colours as we look nearer to the centre. This agrees very well with observation, and so do the calculated diameters of the external red (42° 22′) and internal violet (40° 35′) rings. But what becomes of the light twice reflected inside the drop, and then refracted out? Let fig. 3 represent again a section of the drop, with sunlight falling on it in lines parallel to SO, and let us trace the course of one ray, as SB. The part reflected at B is to be disposed of as before; it goes the letters are the same as in the former, draw TS' parallel to SO. Then TS' is the direction of the line drawn to the point on the heavens diametrically opposite to the sun. So are ES and ES,, drawn from any assumed positions, E and E, of the spectator's eye. If the eye be placed in the surface of the cone just described, as at T, it will receive the condensed ray which emerges in the direction CT; if at E RAINBOW-RAIN-GAUGE. back is turned to the sun. Similarly, at C, there is internal reflection along CD, and refraction out of the drop. The refracted part has already been considered, as the cause of the primary rainbow. The reflected part will again at D be separated into two; one, reflected internally, which proceeds to form the tertiary and higher orders of bow; and the other, escaping from the drop in the line DT, which goes to form the secondary bow. This we will consider with some care, because the secondary bow, though necessarily fainter than the primary, is usually seen; the tertiary and higher bows, each much fainter than the preceding one, since the beam inside the drop is weakened at each succeeding reflection, require no notice, as even the tertiary has never been observed in nature. a source of finite angular diameter, as the sun, the only effect is, as in the primary bow, to widen the bright circular band. When we consider the various components of white light, calculation shews us that DTS' is least for red, and greatest for violet. Hence we have a series of concentric coloured bands superposed, their diameters increasing from the red to the violet. Hence the secondary rainbow has its inner edge red, and its outer violet; the intermediate space being an exceedingly mixed, or impure Spectrum (q. v.). The results of geometrical optics shew us that the angular diameter of the red is 100° 48', and of the violet 106° 44′; so that the breadth of the bow is 3° 30′ nearly. In nature, these rough results are pretty closely verified; but a more profound investigation into the As before, we have traced the courses of two circumstances of the problem shews us some modiother beams, SB, and SB, in their passage to form fications. In the first place, we find that for each part of the secondary bow. They are respectively kind of homogeneous light the actual maximum SB1A,C,D,T, and SB,A,C,D,T,; and the figure of brightness is in a circle of rather less angular shews us that the final rays DT, and D,T, are each diameter than that given by the more elementary more inclined to SO than DT is. There is, there-investigation for the primary bow; and rather fore, a particular ray, SB, whose final direction, DT, is less inclined to SO than that of any other ray which has suffered two refractions and two internal reflections; and, as before, the emergent light is condensed towards this minimum. If, then, the figure be made to revolve about SO, we see that DT will describe a cone, that inside this cone there is no refracted light, that towards the surface of the cone, part of the light is condensed, and that the rest of it is diffused through exterior space. So much for one drop; let us now, as before, consider what will be seen by an eye in any position with regard to this particular drop. In fig. 4, the letters denote the same things as in fig. 3. Hence if the eye be placed at T, it will receive the maximum of light, in a direction making an angle DTS' with the point in the heavens opposite to the sun. If at E, it will receive some of the diffused light from a drop whose angular distance from the point opposite the sun is greater than DTS'; and if at E, it will receive no light at all, the drop's angular distance from the point opposite the sun being less than DTS'. Hence the appearance presented by a shower of drops is, for homogeneous light coming in parallel lines, a bright circle, whose angular radius is DTS'; diffused light outside that circle, and no light within it. When the light comes from 98 greater for the secondary. Secondly, and still with homogeneous light, there is a succession of feebler and feebler concentric circles of maximum brightness-inside the principal maximum in the primary bow, and outside it in the secondary. These give rise to what is always seen in a fine rainbow, the so-called spurious or supernumerary bows, lying close inside the violet of the primary bow, and outside that of the secondary. These are fainter and more impure as they proceed from the principal bow, and finally merge into the diffused white light inside the primary bow, and outside the secondary. The angular dimensions of these bows, principal and spurious, were calculated from theory by Airy, and carefully measured by Miller in the artificial bow formed by passing light through a very fine column of water descending through a small aperture, and the accordance was perfect. The lunar rainbow, which is a comparatively rare, but very beautiful phenomenon, differs from the solar simply in the source and intensity of the light by which it is produced; and, as in all cases of feeble light, the distinction of the colours is very difficult. In fact, except under the most favourable circumstances, the lunar rainbow rarely shews colours at all, giving a pale ghostly gleam of apparently white or yellow light. RAIN-GAUGE. The use of rain-gauges is to ascertain the amount of rain which falls at any given place. They are of various constructions. The simplest is that which consists of a metallic cylinder, from the bottom of which, a glass tube (bc), divided into inches and parts of an inch, projects downwards. It is provided with a funnel, inserted within at the top, to prevent evaporation, and the rain-water is emptied out by means of a stop-cock (d) at the bottom, or, still simpler, by a hole (a) pierced in the funnel at the top. (See accompanying wood-cut.) As this form of gauge is objectionable on account of the frequent breakage of the glass-tube by frost, a float is used instead, which is raised by the water, and a scale is attached to it, to shew the quantity of rain received. As this gauge does not admit of very nice readings, another sort is frequently employed, viz., a receiving-vessel and a glass measure of much smaller diameter, which thus admits of as nice graduation as may be desired. As, practically, there is often great difficulty or trouble experienced in replacing the glass measure when it chances to get broken, the late G. V. Jagga Ráo, a wealthy zemindar of Vizagapatam, proposed a gauge in the form of a funnel having a diameter of 4.697 inches, or an area of 17:33 square inches. Now, as a fluid RAIN-PRINTS-RAJAMAHENDRI can, of course, be graduated to any degree of nicety, and may be reproduced at pleasure. It has also the great merit of being by far the cheapest gauge, costing only 48. 6d. Self-registering rain-gauges have been invented by Osler and Crosley, but they are too expensive to come into common use. Woods, in a west-north-west direction, by the Rainy River, which is about 100 miles in length, and the banks of which are covered with pine-forests. RAISED SEA-BEACHES. See BEACHES, RAISED. RAISINÉE, a rob, or sweetmeat, much esteemed in France, made by boiling new wine, and skimming until only half the quantity of wine remains; after which it is strained; apples, pared and cut into quarters, are added to it, and it is allowed to simmer gently, till the apples are thoroughly mixed with the wine, when it has a very pleasant sweetish acid taste. Cider may be used instead of wine. RAISINS are dried grapes, prepared by two different methods. The one method consists in partially cutting through the stalk of the ripened bunches, and allowing them to shrink and dry upon the vine by the heat of the sun. These are by far the better sort, and are called Raisins of the Sun, or Muscatels. Malaga is much celebrated for its sun-raisins, which are the finest in the world. The raisins prepared by the other method are called Lexias, and are gathered and hung on lines, or laid on prepared floors to dry in the sun. When dried, they are dipped in a hot lye, made by dissolving the alkali out of wood-ashes or barilla with water, until the filtered fluid has a specific gravity of about 1100; to this is added, for every four gallons, a pint of olive oil and a quarter of a pound of salt. After dipping, the fruit is laid on hurdles of wicker-work to drain, and is continually exposed to the sun for about a fortnight. The raisins are then pulled from the stalks, and packed into boxes for transport to other countries. The qualities best known in the markets are Valencias and Denias from Spain, Malagas from Malaga, and black Smyrnas and Sultanas from Asiatic Turkey. The Currant (q. v.), or Corinth, as it was originally called, is only a small variety of grape peculiar to the Greek Islands, cured in the same way, and in itself forming a large staple of those islands. Britain imports of raisins proper nearly 5000 tons, and quite as great a quantity of currants in addition. A most important point with regard to the raingauge is its height above the ground. Mr Phillips found the fall of rain at York for 12 months in 1833-1834, to be 14-96 inches at a height of 213 feet from the ground; 1985 inches at 44 feet; and 25-71 inches on the ground. This remarkable fact-viz., that different quantities are collected at different heights, the amount being always greater at the lower level, has been confirmed wherever the experiment has been made. No perfectly satisfactory account has yet been given of this singular phenomenon. The condensing of the vapour of the atmosphere on the surface of raindrops as they fall -the rebound of the finer particles into which RAJAH, or more correctly RAJA (from the many of the drops break themselves as they strike Sanscrit rajan, king, cognate with the Latin reg of with violence on the ground-and the eddies and currents which prevail most and strongest around rex), is originally a title which belonged to those isolated objects raised above the surface of the princes of Hindu race who, either as independent ground, to a large extent account for the pheno- it then, however, became a title given by the native sovereigns or as feudatories, governed a territory; menon. Of these three, the greatest weight is to be given to the last two; and this is confirmed by governments, and, in later times, by the British the fact, that a gauge placed on the roof of a build-government to Hindus of rank,. and it is now not ing that happens to be flat, of considerable area, holders; the title Mahârâjah, or 'great Râjah,' being, uncommonly assumed by the zemindars or landand with few or no chimney-stalks to disturb the in these days, generally reserved to the more or less air-currents, collects an amount equal to that collected at the same place by a gauge on the ground. ancient social system of India, the rajah belonged to independent native princes. According to the The proper size and shape of the rain-gauge, and the kshattriya or military caste (see CASTE); now, its height above the ground, so as to measure with however, the title is given to, and assumed by, the greatest exactness possible the real quantity of members also of an inferior caste. rain that falls, about all of which much diversity of opinion exists, are at present (1865) undergoing investigation by a series of extensive experiments conducted by Major Ward and Mr Symons, in Wilts; and by the Rev. J. Chadwick Bates, near Manchester. RAIN-PRINTS, small pits observed on the surfaces of some argillaceous rocks, and believed to be the impressions of rain-drops. See ICHNOLOGY. RAI'NY LAKE forms a portion of the boundaryline between British North America and the United States. It is situated 160 miles west of Lake Superior, is 1160 feet above sea-level, and is about 35 miles long, and 5 miles in average breadth. Its surplus waters are carried off to the Lake of the RA'JAMAHE'NDRI, or RAJAMUNDRY, a town of Hindustan, capital of a collectorate of the same name in the presidency of Madras, stands on the left bank of the Godavari, about 60 miles from the mouth of that river, and in long. 81° 53′ E. To the north of the town is the hospital, jail, and magazine. The nobler kind of Fort, a square edifice, comprising the barracks, game, as well as wild-fowl of all sort, abounds in the vicinity, and the situation and scenery are in the highest degree beautiful. The Godavari is here about two miles wide, and is crossed by a steamferry. Napkins, table-cloths, and drills are manufactured. Pop. 15,000, about a fourth of whom are Brahmans. Of the collectorate of R., the area is |