SAFETY-VALVE-SAFFLOWER. gauze before its temperature is sufficiently reduced to prevent an explosion; but such a contingency may be guarded against by placing a screen between the draught and the lamp. It was in the year 1815 that Sir Humphry Davy presented his first communication to the Royal Society respecting his discovery of the safety-lamp; and at the meeting held on January 11, 1816, the lamp was exhibited. Sir Humphry Davy's claim as an original discoverer was immediately challenged by various persons, amongst whom may be especially noticed the late Dr Reid Clanny of Newcastle, and the great engineer George Stephenson. Clanny's safety-lamp (which is described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1813) was based on the principle of forcing in air through water by bellows; but the machine was ponderous and complicated, and required a boy to work it; moreover, he had been anticipated by Humboldt in 1796 (Weld's History of the Royal Society, vol. ii. p. 288, note). Notwithstanding a report of the Royal Society, dated November 20, 1817, and signed by Joseph Banks, P.R.S., William Thomas Brande, Charles Hatchett, and William Hyde Wollaston, which is totally adverse to Stephenson's claims, there is undoubted evidence that, during the very months Davy was at work on the experiments which led to his invention, Stephenson's (familiarly called the Geordy) lamp was actually in use at the Killingworth mines. In its general principle it was the same as Davy's, the main difference being that the Stephenson lamp had a glass cylinder inside the wire-gauze cylinder, and that inside the top of the glass-cylinder was a perforated metallic chimney; the air being supplied through a triple circle of small holes in the bottom. On the subject of this controversy, the reader is referred to Smiles's Life of George Stephenson. Our limited space prevents us from noticing the various reports on Accidents in Mines' that have been published by different committees of the Houses of Lords and Commons, or from entering into any details regarding the modified forms of safety-lamps that have been since introduced. The best of these modifications are described in the article LAMP, SAFETY, in the Arts and Sciences Division' of The English Cyclopædia, from which we extract the following paragraph: Amidst much diversity of opinion concerning the relative merits of these various kinds of safety-lamp, there is a pretty general agreement that the gauze cylinder should be accompanied by one of glass, to resist the action of strong currents of air; and that the glass without the gauze is not sufficiently protected against fracture.' virtue of osmose, causes it to swell, and when the swelling has attained a certain point, the warning bell rings. Attempts have at various times been made to use electricity as an illuminating agent in dangerous coal-mines, but until the recent discovery of Rhumkorff's induction coil, none of them have been successful. MM. Dumas and Benoit have now constructed an electric lamp founded on the advantages presented by Rhumkorff's machine and Geiseler's vacuum-tube; and they have made some trials with the lamp in several of the French collieries, which are stated to be successful; and M. Alphonso Dumas exhibited it at a meeting of the North of England Institute of Mines on February 4, 1865. For a description of the lamp, which, from its delicacy and weight (about 14 lbs.), can never supersede the ordinary safety-lamp, we must refer to the Quarterly Journal of Science, No. 6, April 1865, p. 387. Under circumstances of extreme danger, this lamp may, however, be very useful, as an explosive atmosphere may be entered in safety, with the advantage of a sufficient light for the purpose of examination. The light is by no means brilliant, but presents the character of a rich phosphorescent glow. SAFETY-VALVE is a circular valve placed on an opening in the top of a steam-boiler, and kept in its place either by means of weights piled above it, by a lever of the second kind, with a weight capable of sliding along the arm, or by a lever and spring. In stationary engines, one valve is frequently found sufficient, and the pressure on the valve is produced in the first or second of the methods indicated above. In locomotive engines, on the contrary, there are always two loaded valves: one, called the lock-up valve, from its being out of the engineman's reach and control, is placed well forward on the top of the boiler, and kept down by weights; the other, on the hinder part of the top of the boiler, is for safety subjected to a less pressure than the lock-up valve, and is acted on by a lever and spring. The term 'safety-valve' is particularly appropriate to this invention; for whenever the tension of the steam rises above a certain amount (= the weight in pounds with which the valve is held down divided by the area in inches of the undersurface exposed to the steam), the valve is forced upwards by the superior pressure beneath, steam escapes, and the pressure on the boiler being thus relieved, the valve sinks to its place. The only precaution necessary is to be sure that the valves are not too heavily loaded or fastened; and wilful indifference, or disregard of Closely connected in its objects with the safety-this caution, has, especially in the case of American lamp is a most ingenious invention which has been river-steamers, been productive of the most serious just patented by Mr Ansell of her Majesty's Mint. casualties. Its object is to determine, by a simple application of the law of osmotic force, the presence of light carburetted hydrogen in coal-mines; and the apparatus which Mr Ansell has devised promises to indicate the accumulation of fire-damp before it becomes dangerous, and either to give the miner notice of it, or to convey that notice to the surface by its connection with some simple electro-telegraphic arrangement. Mr Ansell gives two or three forms to his apparatus, of which the following is the most simple: A thin india-rubber ball is filled with atmospheric air, and is placed on a stand under a lever which slightly presses its upper surface. This lever is connected with a spring, which it liberates when, from any cause, the lever is raised; and the liberation of the spring sets a bell in vibration. If this trap for the discovery of fire-damp is set where that gas is present to any material extent, the noxious gas enters the ball by It is SA'FFI, AZAFFI, or ASFI, a seaport of Northern Africa, in the kingdom of Morocco, and 107 miles west-north-west of the city of that name. surrounded by waste and desert land; and its inhabitants, about 12,000 in number, of whom 3000 are Jews, are said to be the wildest, greediest, and most fanatical of the kingdom. It was at one time the chief seat of the trade with Europe, and though it has declined with the rise of Mogadore, it still exports silk, wool, leather, gum, and goat-skins. SA'FFLOWER (Carthamus tinctorius), a plant of the natural order Composite, allied to Thistles (q. v.), but distinguished by its heads of flowers having only hermaphrodite florets, and the fruit having four ribs, and no pappus. It is an annual, 2-4 feet high, branching towards the top; flowers dark orange, or vermilion. It is a native of the East Indies, from which it was probably introduced SAFFRON-SAGE. in a remote age into Egypt and the Levant, where it is now naturalised. It is extensively cultivated in France, and the more southern parts of Europe, and even in some parts of South America, chiefly on account of the corollas of the florets, which are used in dyeing yellow and red. In France, it is drilled or sown broadcast in the beginning of May. The plants are thinned to five or six inches apart; and the flowers are picked by the hand in dry weather, and very carefully dried on a kiln, under pressure, and are thus formed into small round cakes, in which state S. appears in the market. The S. of Persia is generally esteemed the best; but India yields the chief part of that imported into Britain. From its resemblance to saffron, S. is sometimes called Bastard Saffron, and it is used to adulterate saffron. The yellow colouring matter of S. is a kind of extractive. The red colouring matter is Carthamine (q. v.). The colouring matter of Rouge (q. v.) is derived from Safflower. The seeds of S. are bitter and very oily. They are greedily eaten by parrots and many other birds. They are sometimes used as a purgative. The oil which they contain is employed in the East Indies in cases of rheumatism and paralysis. SA'FFRON, a colouring material, consisting of the dried stigmas of the common yellow crocus, so abundant in our gardens in early spring. It was introduced into Europe from Asia Minor, and is largely cultivated in several countries, but chiefly in Spain. In England, the crocus was unknown until 1339, when it was introduced from the East by a pilgrim; and in 1582 it was extensively cultivated for yielding S., especially in Essex, at the place now called, in consequence, Saffron-Walden. Its cultivation in Britain has almost entirely ceased, and the S. used is imported. S. is not only valuable as a colouring material, but has from very early ages had a great medicinal reputation. Homer mentions it, and Solomon associates it with spikenard and other precious drugs and spices. A large portion of the supply in ancient times was yielded by Cashmere, where it is still extensively cultivated. In addition to its other properties, it is often used as a perfume, and in flavouring as well as colouring confectionary and other articles of food. These latter are now its chief uses in Britain, where its medicinal value has long been declining. The colour yielded by S. is a bright golden yellow, and is due to a peculiar principle called Polychroite. Its great solubility in water prevents its being used as a dye for fabrics; but its agreeable flavour, and the absence of all injurious qualities, render it of great service in colouring articles of food. The S. Crocus (Crocus sativus; see CROCUS) differs from most of the species of that genus in flowering in autumn, not in spring. It has large deep purple or violet flowers, with the throat bearded, and the long drooping trifid stigma much protruded from the tube of the perianth. The stigmas are the only valuable part of the plant. In its cultivation, the corms are planted in the beginning of summer in rows six inches apart, and three inches from bulb to bulb; the most suitable soil being a sandy loam, very thoroughly tilled. The stigmas are gathered by women and children, and are spread out on cloth or paper, and dried in the sun, or in kilns or drying-houses. The produce of an acre of S. is about 5 pounds the first year, and 24 pounds the second and third year, after which the plantation must be renewed. But an ounce of S. sells for at least £2. SAFFRON-WA'LDEN, a market-town and municipal borough of England, in the county of Essex, 24 miles north-north-west of Chelmsford. The church is an elegant specimen of late Perpendicular. The free grammar-school has an income of £60 a year. The chief trade is in barley, malt, and cattle. Pop. (1861) 5474. SA'GA, an old Norse word, used to denote a tale which, originally dependent on, and gradually elaborated by, oral tradition, had at last acquired a definite form in written literature. Such sagas (Norse Sögur), along with poetical and legislative writings, constitute the chief part of the old divided into historical and legendary. The latter Norwegian-Icelandic literature. They have been embrace partly stories universally current about heroes of the Teutonic race (e. g., the VölsungaSaga), and partly stories peculiar to the Norse or Scandinavian peoples (e. g., the Frithjofs-Saga); while the former handle the events and perthe 9th to the 13th c., in numerous biographies and sonages of Norwegian and Icelandic history from family records. To Danish history belong the Knytlinga-Saga and Jomsvikinga-Saga; to Swedish, the Ingvars-Saga; to Russian, the Eymunds-Saga. The Faroe Islanders and the Orcadians have also their own sagas. After the middle of the 14th c., when the motley literature of the church began to exercise an influence, tales were translated from foreign languages into Norse, e. g., the story of Barlaam and Josaphat (q. v.), which also received the name of sagas. Bishop P. E. Müller, in his Sagabibliothek (Copenh. 1817-1820), was the first who subjected the whole subject of saga-literature to a critical treatment. Since his time, collections both of the historical and legendary sagas, with critical apparatus more or less complete, have appeared in all the countries of the north.-The German Sage is the same word, and expresses fundamentally the same idea as the Norse saga. difference is this, that the Germans do not restrict its application to the legendary or traditional literature of their own country, but extend it to that of others. The SA'GAN, a town of Prussian Silesia, 48 miles north-west of Liegnitz, on the Bober, and on the Hannsdorf and Glogau Railway. Pop. (1862) 9072, who manufacture cotton and woollen cloths, and paper, and trade in yarn, cattle, and corn. In the manufacture of woollen cloths alone, 1600 men are employed. order Labiata, and containing many species, herSAGE (Salvia), a genus of plants of the natural baceous and half-shrubby. There are only two perfect stamens, the filaments of which bear at their summit a cross thread-the much elongated connective-fastened by a joint, and having one cell of the anther at the upper end, and the other but imperfect cell at the other end. The seeds of many of the species, when steeped in water, become covered with a mucilaginous slime, like quince grows on sunny mountain slopes and rocks in the seeds.-COMMON S., or GARDEN S. (S. officinalis), south of Europe, and has long been in general cultivation in gardens. It is a half-shrubby plant, seldom more than two feet high, with ovate-oblong or lanceolate, finely notched, curiously wrinkled, whitish-gray leaves, and racemes of purplish blue, rarely white or red flowers. The whole plant has a peculiar, strong, penetrating aromatic smell, somewhat resembling that of camphor, and a bitterish, aromatic, somewhat astringent taste. much essential oil (Oil of S.), which has been sometimes used in liniments for rheumatism. S. leaves are much used in flavouring dishes, and in sauces, &c. The leaves and young shoots are used for astringent tonic gargles. S. tea, made of the dried It contains SAGHALIEN-SAHARA. leaves and shoots, is a popular astringent and tonic. S. grows best in a dry soil, and is easily propagated by slips or cuttings.-CLARY (q.v.) is a species of sage. MEADOW CLARY, or MEADOW SAGE (S. pratensis), is a common ornament of meadows and borders of fields in most parts of the continent of Europe, and in the south of England. It has bluish purple flowers. It is sometimes fraudulently put into beer, to make it more intoxicating.—The APPLE-BEARING S. (S. pomifera) is a native of the south of Europe and of the East, remarkable for its very large reddish or purple bracts, and for the large gall-nuts which grow on its branches, as on the leaves of the oak, and which are known as S. Apples, have an agreeable aromatic taste, and are brought to market and eaten.-Some of the species of Salvia have very beautiful flowers, and are prized ornaments of gardens and greenhouses. SAGHALI'EN, spelled in all Russian accounts Sakhalin (q. v.). SA'GINAW BAY, an arm of Lake Huron, extends south-west, and forms an important indentation of the shore of Michigan State, U.S. It is 60 miles long by 30 wide, with several fine harbours and picturesque islands. The water, like that of the whole lake, is of wonderful clearness and purity. The bay is named from the river Saginaw which falls into it. The forms a valuable article of food, being cheap, light, The SAGU'NTUM, a wealthy and warlike town of ancient Spain, in Hispania Tarraconensis, stood on an eminence near the mouth of the Pallantias (modern Palancia). Its site is now occupied by the town of Murviedro (q. v.). Founded (according to Strabo) by Greeks from Zacynthus, it became at an early period celebrated for its commerce, and attained to great wealth. But it owes its historical vitality to the circumstance of its siege and destruction by the Carthaginians, under Hannibal, in 218 B. C. Having withstood the siege for the greater part of a year, against an army amounting to about 150,000 men, led by a general of consummate ability and indomitable resolution, the Saguntines, now most severely pressed by famine, concluded, with an act of heroic defiance and self-sacrifice, a resistance that had been characterised by the most brilliant valour. Heaping their valuable effects into around it, the men issued forth for the last time one vast pile, and placing their women and children against the enemy; and the women, setting fire to the pile they had prepared, cast themselves upon it, with their children, and found in flames the fate their husbands met in battle. The destruction of S. directly led to the second Punic war. SAGO is the starch produced by several species of palms, prepared in a peculiar manner. species from which it is chiefly prepared are Sagus Levis, S. genuina, and Saguerus saccharifer, in the Indian Archipelago; Caryota ureus, in Assam; Phoenix farinifera, on the Coromandel coast; and the Talipot Palm (Corypha umbraculifera), in Ceylon. Several other species are occasionally used; and there is some reason to believe that some plants of the genus Cycas (natural order Cycadaceae) also vield sago. It is in all cases produced from the large mass of pith which fills the interior of the stems, therefore the trees require to be cut down. The stems are cut into lengths, split open, and the pith dug out, cut small, placed in a trough, and SAHA'RA. The immense tract of country to worked with clean water, to wash out the fecula; which this name is commonly given, has already this makes the water white and turbid, and it been described under the heading AFRICA (q. v.). is then run off into another vessel. Fresh wash-But the term Sahara is more correctly applied to ings of the pith take place, until it ceases to yield any starch. The water of the separate washings being all added together, is allowed to settle, and the starch is soon deposited; the clear supernatant water is then run off, and the deposit dried. This is the ordinary Sago Flour of commerce, of which large quantities are now imported for use as starch in the calico and other manufactures. When prepared for food, it is either in the state called Pearl Sago, or Granulated. The former is in little spherical grains of a pearly-white lustre, varying in size from that of a poppy-seed to a grain of millet. Granulated sago is also in round grains, but of a larger size, sometimes nearly as farge as a pea. There are several varieties, differing much in colour-some quite white, others having the peculiar reddish-brown of radish-seed, which they strikingly resemble in appearance. One kind of granulated sago from India has lately been introduced into our shops under the erroneous name of Tapioca, from its having been called by the French Sagoutapioka. a region of much more limited extent. The natives divide Africa north of the line into three portions the Tell, the Sahara, and the Desert. The Tell extends from the Mediterranean to the Atlas Mountains; the Sahara, from the Atlas to the southern region where all regular supply of water fails; and the Desert, from the southern, and not very clearly-defined frontier of the Sahara, southward almost to the water-shed of the Niger, comprising a district salt and arid, inhospitable to man and beast, although the camel may even here snatch a scanty subsistence. As to physical geography, the S. may be subdivided into the following districts-1. The Hauts Plateaux, or Steppes, a series of high levels skirting the base of the Atlas Mountains. 2. The land of the Dayats or waterless oases, stretching south to the high lands on the south bank of the Wed Mzi or Djidi. 3. The region of the southern oases, to the south of the former, and extending south till it loses itself in the Desert. The principal feature of the S. is the Wed Mzi, which rises in the Djebel Amour, and after an east, north-east, and finally south-east course, falls into the Chott Melr' hir. Throughout almost the whole of its course, which is about 400 miles long, it flows under ground. Its waters seem to rest on a bed of hard limestone from 30 to 60 feet below the surface. Tristram's Great Sahara (John Murray, Lond. The exact method employed by the Malays in pearling and granulating their sago, is not known to Europeans; but there are strong reasons to believe that heat is employed, because the starch is partially transformed into gum. It is not entirely soluble in hot water, like ordinary starch, hence it can be employed in making puddings, &c., and in this way | 1860). SAHIB-SAIL. SAHIB (an Arabic word meaning a companion, a master, a lord) is, in Hindustani, the usual designation and address of a respectable European, equivalent to Mister, Sir, &c. Hence, Sahiba is the term for Lady, Madam. In Bengali and Mahrati, the word assumes the form Saheb. SAIDA. See SIDON. The SAIL. A sail is an expanse of canvas, matting, or other strong material, on which the wind may exert its force and propel the vessel. A sail is extended by means of a mast or yard, or both. It may be of various shapes, and of any size, according to the carrying power of the vessel. A vessel of shallow draught or of narrow beam can bear comparatively little sail; while a vessel of proportionately deep draught and heavily ballasted-as a WIND'S DIRECTION P Fig. 1. SHIP'S A sail acts with the ship, PAS its sail, WA the direction of the wind, SAIGON, one of the finest river-ports in Asia, the capital of the French possessions in Lower Cochin China, stands on a small river of the same name, about 35 miles from the Chinese Sea. city is fortified, and its value as a strategical position is unquestionable. By land it is defended from attack by many miles of jungle and swamp, and the approach from the sea on the south, by the fine river Donnai, could easily be rendered impassable to the strongest fleet. The entrance to the Donnai yacht--or a vessel of great breadth of beam, can is at Cape St Jacques, and its winding course to S., carry sail of great area. through a rich level country, is from 50 to 60 miles greatest power when the wind is directly astern, in length, and might be defended by fortifications as in fig. 1; but it can be applied, though with at every point. It is of easy navigation, and is of less strength, when on either beam. The action sufficient depth to allow vessels of the heaviest of the wind on an oblique sail is a good example burden to sail close to its banks under the over-RESOLUTION OF FORCES, &c. Let TD, fig. 2, be a of the resolution of forces. See COMPOSITION AND hanging foliage. The breadth of the river from S. to the sea varies little, but it is never narrower than the Thames at London. It is joined on both sides by many large affluents, and it is the main channel of a river-system that covers the whole country to the south of the capital with a network of water courses. The city of S. is fortified, and is defended by a permanent force of several large ships of war and a garrison of 10,000 men. At the beginning of this year (1865) the law of conscription, by which one man in seven is chosen from among the natives for military service, was already in force. S. consists of two parts, the Chinese town, four miles inland, filled with an active population busily engaged in trade; and the European, or fortified town on the banks of the Saigon. The latter, with its fleet of vessels riding at anchor in mid-stream, is already of considerable size. Good roads have been constructed for many miles around, and there are barracks, hospitals, official residences, and other buildings for public purposes. The soil, only about one-fourth of which is under cultivation, is abundantly fertile, and is admirably suited to the production of cotton, sugar, indigo, and tobacco, besides rice, which is at present the principal, and almost the only, exported product. Its forests contain magnificent timber, and abound in woods rich in dyes. There is a naval yard and arsenal, and shipbuilding is carried on. Pop. estimated at 180,000. S., together with the territory of which it is the capital, was taken by the French in 1860. Treaties of peace and commerce have been concluded with the Anamite government, from which the colonial government derives great advantages. These treaties, signed 15th July 1864, provide that the protectorate of the six provinces of Lower CochinChina shall remain in the hands of France; that three important ports on the coast of Anam shall be opened; and that a space of nine kilometres on the shore of each port shall be conceded to the French for the establishment of factories; that French merchants and missionaries shall be allowed to traverse the kingdom of Anam without hindrance, and that an indemnity of 100 millions of francs shall be paid. By these treaties the French still protect, though they do not formally at least possess the six provinces of Cochin-China, but they retain vast tracts of territory at S., at Cape St Jacques, and at Mytho, and remain masters of the rivers Saigon and Cambodia. sure on the sail. Were be resolved into CA W Fig. 2. and BC, the former, CA, acting in the direction of the keel or length of the vessel, or in the direction CAD, and the latter perpendicular to it, or in the direction of the breadth. The former pressure, CA, is the only pressure that moves the vessel forward, the other, BC, makes it move sideways. From the form of the vessel, however, this latter force, BC, that it does occasion is called leeway. It results, produces comparatively little lateral motion; any therefore, that with the wind exerting an oblique the wind only as CA to WA. pressure, the actual progress will be to the power of In the East and the Mediterranean, sails are frequently made of strong matting; but among northern nations, and for ocean navigation, very strong cloth, or canvas, called sailcloth, is usually resorted to. It is woven narrow; and the many breadths in the sail are joined by carefully made double seams. SAIL-SAILINGS. the outer edge all round the sail; this rope has eyes in it, to which the various ropes employed in connection with the sail are fastened. The top of a sail is its head; the bottom, its foot; and the sides are leeches; the upper corners are termed earrings; the lower corners of a square sail, and the after lower corner of other sails, clews; the front lower corner of a fore-and-aft sail is the tack. The ropes from the lower corners, used in tightening the sail against the wind, are the sheets. The sails of a ship are either 'square' or 'foreand-aft. The square-sails-beginning from below -are, the course, the topsail, the topgallant-sail, the royal, and, though very rarely used, the skyscraper. Each has the name of the mast on which sad to it is set prefixed, as 'fore-topsail,' 'main-royal,' Fig. 4. 1 Course; la, Studding-sails; 2, Fore-topsail; 2a, Studding-sails; 3, Main-topsail; 3a, Studding-sails; 4, Mizen-topsail; 5, Fore-topgallant-sail; 5a, Studding-sails; 6, Main-topgallant-sail; 6a, Studding-sails; 7, Mizen-topgallant-sail; 8, Fore-royaltopsail; 84, Studding-sails; 9, Main-royal-topsail; 9a, Studding-sails; 10, Mizen-royal-topsail; 11, Fore-skysail-topsail; 12, Main-skysail-topsail; 13, Mizen-skysail-topsail; 14, Fore-topmast-staysail jib; 15, Jib; 16, Flying jib; 17, Mizen spanker; 18, Spenser; 19, Main-royal-staysail; 20, Main-topgallant-staysail; 21, Mizen-royal-staysail. square-sails, on short booms run out beyond the yards of the latter. Fig. 4 represents a square-rigged ship with the whole of her canvas shewn. In small craft and boats, the most common sail is a lugṣail (see LUGGER), which is a small square-sail, occasionally supplemented by a shoulder-of-mutton (triangular) sail on a shorter mast at the stern. Cutters or sloops carry a large spanker, with a topsail of similar shape, and jibs; some having the power of setting a large course when the wind is astern; but it is obvious that the course and spanker cannot be used together. A schooner uses the same sails as a cutter, except that, in one form, she carries a square topsail and topgallant-sail on the foremast. Sails are furnished with rows of short ropes for the purpose of reefing them, when their area is too large for the wind. The effect of a sail is increased by wetting it, as the pores of the canvas close more tightly through the swelling of the hemp. SAILCLOTH, a very strong fabric, woven been made wholly of cotton; and in this country, generally with linen yarn, but in America it has Hair-such as of the ox, horse, and deer-has also under Armitage's patent, of cotton and linen mixed. Linen and hempen cloths are been used, under Taylor's patent, in 1832, but those generally used in all parts of Europe. without success. SAILINGS, the technical name in Navigation or direction of a ship's motion, or her position after for the various modes of determining the amount having sailed a given distance, in a given direction. The direction of a ship's motion is her course, and is expressed in terms of the angle between the line of direction and the meridian; the length of her 421 |