RIGA-RIGGING. less conspicuous than green as a uniform, whence its adoption by many Volunteer corps. The Volunteer riflemen of Great Britain will be described under VOLUNTEERS. RIGA, a most important seaport of Russia, capital of Livonia, and the centre of administration for the three Baltic Provinces, stands mainly on the right bank of the Dwina, 5 miles from the mouth of that river, in the Gulf of Riga. It is 376 miles south-west of St Petersburg, and is the terminus of a railway to Moscow, not yet (1865) completed. From the steeple of St Peter's Church, said to be the highest in the empire, a full view of the situation of the city is obtained. R. contains a number of striking and handsome public buildings, of which the castle, or Dom, built in 1204, now the residence of the governor-general of the three Baltic Provinces, is the chief. The Dwina is crossed by a bridge of boats, 800 paces long, of which the boats in the middle are movable, to allow of the passage of vessels, and which is entirely removed in winter. The old town is dark and gloomy, and shews all the main features of a German town of the middle ages; but the extensive suburbs are modern and handsome, and the whole is defended by ramparts, bastions, and other fortified works. R. is the second trading town in Russia. It contains numerous soap, candle, glass, and iron works; cloth, leather, sugar, and tobacco factories, and rope-walks. Shipbuilding is extensively carried on in the town and vicinity. The principal articles of export are flax, hemp, linseed, corn, timber, tallow, and tobacco. In 1863, the exports amounted to £3,348,550, and of this sum the chief items were: flax, £1,380,000; hemp, £600,000; and linseed, £420,000. The imports do not exceed £853,000, the principal articles being fish and salt. In 1863, the value of the export trade to Great Britain was £1,812,705, being considerably more than half the entire export trade. The import trade from Great Britain, in 1863, valued £293,250, or a third of the whole imports. Of the 3506 vessels, of 570,170 tons, that entered and cleared the port in 1863, 726 vessels, of 148,690 tons, were British. Pop. 73,953. R. was founded in the beginning of the 13th c. by Albert Buckshoevden, Bishop of Livonia, and soon became a first-rate commercial town, and member of the Hanseatic League. The Teutonic Knights possessed it in the 16th century. In 1621, R. was taken by Gustavus Adolphus, and held under Swedish dominion till 1710, but was finally annexed to Russia in 1721. RIGA, GULF OF, an inlet in the north-east of the Baltic Sea, washes the shores of the three Baltic Provinces, Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia. It is over 100 miles in length from north to south, and is about 70 miles in breadth. The islands of Oesel, Dagö, Mohn, and Worms stand in the entrance to it, and narrow the mouth of the gulf to a passage about 20 miles in width. The chief river which falls into the gulf is the Dwina. Sandbanks render navigation in some parts dangerous. RIGGING, in a ship, is a combination of very numerous ropes to afford stability to the masts, and to lower and hoist the sails. Notwithstanding the complication which the cordage of a rigged ship presents at first sight to the eye, the arrangement is remarkably simple. In all substantial points, the rig of each mast is the same; to understand one is, consequently, to understand all. In the accompanying diagrams, the same notation is observed throughout, spars being shewn by capital letters; sails, by Italic letters; standing rigging, by Roman numerals; and running rigging, by Arabic numerals. To avoid a confusing number of symbols and needless Rigging is either Standing or Running. The former is employed in maintaining, in fixed position, the masts and bowsprit; the latter runs Fig. 1. freely through numerous blocks, and its functions are to raise and lower the upper masts and the yards, to trim the sails, to K 12 12 A Fig. 2. hoist the signals and other flags, and occasionally to furl the sails. RIGGING. Each mast has the following standing rigging: at each side shrouds (I., II., III.), consisting of several very thick (usually plaited) ropes; in front, the stay (IV., V., VI., VII.); and behind, the backstays (VIII, IX., X.), coming down to the ship's sides behind the shrouds. Across the lowermast and tpmast shrouds, thin ropes, called ratlings, are hitened horizontally, and form convenient ladders for the men to use in going aloft. The standing rigging of the lower mast reaches the chains on the ship's sides; while the shrouds of the topmast and topgallantmast are worked into the top, their stays to the tops of the masts nearer the bow in each case (the bowsprit serving as an anterior mast for the fore-rigging); all the backstays, however, are brought down to the ship's sides. In steamers, the mainstays require modification, in order to avoid the funnel; they are often adjusted on a plan similar to that of the backstays. The standing rigging of the bowsprit consists of the bobstays (XIV.), generally of chain; the martingale stays (XI., XII.), and martingale backstays (XIII.), which all exert an adverse pressure to that of the stays from the foremast, topmast, &c. The running rigging is of four classes: 1. Lifts for the upper masts and the jib-boom. These are not shewn in the diagrams, from the fact that they run parallel, and closely contiguous to the masts, topmasts, and bowsprit. 2. The lifts for the yards and sails. Each yard has two lifts, one proceeding from a point near either extremity, and passing through a pulley at the head of that section of the mast to which the sail or yard belongs. They are worked either on the deck or in the top. The yard-lifts are shewn by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4. The gaff and boom have separate lifts working into the mizzen-top (13, 15). Each jib-sail has a lift (not shewn), which acts parallel and close to IV., v., 10, or 11. If the ship carry stay-sails, there will be lifts parallel to the main and mizzen topmast stays and higher stays. 3. The ropes for adjusting the sails when spread. These comprise, first, the sheets for hauling down the lower corners of each sail-specimens are shewn Spars, &c.-A, Mast; B, Topmast; C, Topgallantmast; D, Royal-mast; E, Yard; F, Topsailyard; G, Topgallantsail-yard; H, Royal-yard; K, Truck; L, Bowsprit; M, Jib-boom; N, Flying Jib-boom; 0, Martingale; P, Chains; Q, Top; R, Cap; S, Crosstrees; T, Topmast Cap; U, Gaff; V, Boom, or Spanker-boom. Sails. a, Mainsail; b, Topsail; c, Topgallantsail; d, Royal; e, Spanker. Standing Rigging.-1. Shrouds; 11. Topmast Shrouds, crossed by Ratlings; III. Topgallant Shrouds; Iv. Stay; v. Topmast Stay; VI. Topgallantmast Stay; VII. Royal Stay; viii. Topmast Backstay; Ix. Topgallantmast Backstay; x. Royal Backstay: XI. Flying Jib-boom Martingale Stays, XII. Jib-boom Martingale Stays; XIII. Martingale Backstays; XIV. Bobstays. Running Rigging.-1, Lifts: 2, Topsail Lifts; 3, Topgallantsail Lifts; 4, Royal Lifts: 5, Braces; 6, Topsail Braces; 7, Topgallant Braces; 8, Royal Braces; 9, Signal Halyards; 10, Jib-stay; 11, Flying Jib-stay; 12, Sheet; 13, Peak Halyards; 14, Vangs; 15, Topping Lifts. at 12; secondly, the braces for turning the yards about, to trim the sails to the wind. Each yard has two braces, one from either end passing to an adjoining mast, except the main braces, which are brought to the ship's side near the stern. The braces are shewn as Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8. The vangs and spanker sheet (14, 16) perform similar offices for the spanker. There are minor ropes in connection with the sails, for assisting in furling, reefing, spreading, &c.; but it would have rendered the diagram too complicated to have inserted them. 4. Ropes in connection with the flags. Each mast has at its head a truck, containing two or more small pulleys. Over each of these, a thin halyard is passed, and brought down double to the deck. On these, any required flag is rapidly bent and hoisted with great ease. There are two pair of similar halyards to the gaff-peak; and when the RIGHI-RIGHTS. ship is to be decorated on any festive occasion, similar halyards are affixed to the end of each yard-arm. In different classes of ships, slight modifications occur in the rigging, to suit particular circumstances, but the main principles of rigging are as detailed above for all sizes of decked vessels. See SAILS. RIGHI, a mountain of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwyz, between Lakes Lucerne, Zug, and Lowerz, is isolated, and commands extensive views of some of the finest Swiss scenery. It is easily accessible; four mule-paths lead to its summit, which, though it forms an admirable natural observatory in favourable weather, is only 5676 feet above the sea. Verdant pastures clothe the entire summit, and the slopes are belted with forests. Crowds of tourists, of both sexes, ascend the R. every season, in order to enjoy the fine views (especially that of sunrise), which, in clear weather, it commands. There is a large hotel at the top, where tourists pass the night, in order to see the sunrise. RIGHT, in Legal language, is that kind of interest or connection with a subject-matter which serves as a foundation for an action or suit, or other protection of a court of law or equity; and hence it means an interest that can be enforced, for if it is such as a court of law or equity cannot take notice of, it may be called a natural or moral, but it is not a legal right. Strictly speaking, right merely means a relation between external nature and some person or other, and therefore there is no such thing as abstract rights, for a right is only intelligible when predicated of some person who can exercise or enforce it. There is an old practical division of all rights into rights of the person and rights of things. In the former class are included such divisions as rights of personal security and liberty; rights connected with marriage, infancy, &c.; while in the latter class are included the general rights arising out of the possession of real and personal property. There are various subjects which do not fall under either division exclusively; indeed, none of the usual divisions of rights can be said to be more than vaguely descriptive of their subjects. It might naturally be expected that the correlative legal expression for rights should be wrongs, but this is not the case, the word wrong being used technically to mean only that class of infringements of one's rights which are connected with the person or the personal use of property. Thus, the refusing or withholding payment of a debt is not correctly called a legal wrong; but an assault or injury to one's person, or to one's property, irrespective of any contract, is properly called a wrong or a tort. The word right is also used, more or less technically, in a narrower sense. An action, called a writ of right, had for its object to establish the title to real property; but it was abolished, the same object being secured by the order of ejectment. A petition of right is a proceeding resembling an action by which a subject vindicates his rights against the crown, and recovers debts and claims, the first step being a petition, which is allowed by the home secretary, and referred for trial to a court of law. A right of way, is a right of a private owner or occupier to a way over the land of an adjoining proprietor, as incidental to his possession of a house, or premises, or land. Right of action, means simply a right to commence an action in one of the courts of law to recover damages or property. Right of common, means a right of one, who is not the owner or occupier of waste land, to send cattle to graze upon it, or to cut turf, or exercise some partial right of property over it. Right of entry, is a right to possess and use land or premises, &c. on the RIGHTS, DECLARATION AND BILL OF. The convention which called the Prince and Princess of Orange to the throne of England, set forth, in a solemn instrument known by the name of the Declaration of Rights, those fundamental principles of the constitution which were to be imposed on This declaration, drawn up by a committee of the William and Mary on their acceptance of the crown. Commons, of which Mr (afterwards Lord) Somers was chairman, and assented to by the Lords, began by declaring that King James II. had committed certain acts contrary to the laws of the realm. The king, by whose authority these unlawful acts had been done, had abdicated the throne; and the Prince of Orange having invited the estates of the realm to meet and deliberate security of religion, law, and freedom, the Lords and Commons had resolved to declare and assert the ancient rights and liberties of England. It was therefore declared, that the power of suspending and of dispensing with laws by regal authority is illegal; that the commission for creating the late Court of Commissioners for Ecclesiastical Causes, and all commissions and courts of the like nature, are illegal; that the levying of money for the use of the crown by prerogative, without grant of parliament, is illegal; that it is the right of the subjects to petition the king, and all prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal; that the raising or keeping of a standing army in time of peace, except with consent of parliament, is illegal; that Protestant subjects may have arms for their defence; that the election of members of parliament should be free; that freedom of speech in parliament should not be questioned in any place out of parliament; that excessive bail ought not to be required, or excessive fines imposed, or cruel or unusual punishments inflicted; that jurors should be duly impanneled, and that jurors in trials for high treason should be freeholders; that grants and promises of fines and forfeitures before conviction are illegal; and that for redress of all grievances, and the amendment, strengthening, and preserving of the laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently. All these things the Lords and Commons claimed as their undoubted rights and liberties; and having done so, they resolved that William and Mary should be king and queen of England for their joint and separate lives, the administration being during their joint lives in William alone; and that on their decease the crown should descend to the issue of the queen, then to that of Anne and her posterity, and, failing them, to the issue of William. This Declaration of Rights was presented to the Prince and Princess of Orange at Whitehall, and accepted by them along with the crown. Being originally a revolutionary instrument, drawn up in an irregular assembly, it was considered necessary that it should be turned into law. The Declaration of Rights was therefore brought forward in the parliament, into which the convention had been turned, as a Bill of Rights, and passed the Commons; but an amendment proposed in the Lords regarding the settlement of the crown on the issue of the Princess Sophia, in the event of Mary, Anne, and William all dying without issue, led to several ineffectual conferences between the two Houses, which ended in the measure being dropped. The bill was, however, reintroduced in the following session of parliament (1689) without the proposed amendment, when it passed both Houses, and obtained the royal assent-a clause, however, being added, which originated in the House of Lords, to the effect that the kings and queens of England should be obliged, RIGHTS OF MAN-RIGOR MORTIS. on coming to the throne, in full parliament or at the to all such problems, and removes the necessity coronation, to repeat and subscribe the declaration against transubstantiation, and that a king or queen who should marry a papist would be incapable of reigning in England, and his subjects would be absolved from their allegiance. RIGHTS OF MAN, a famous statement of rights, principally drawn up by Dumont, author of the Souvenirs de Mirabeau, and solemnly adopted by the French National Assembly on the 18th August 1789. It declares that all mankind are originally equal; that the ends of the social union are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression; that sovereignty resides in the nation, and that all power emanates from it; that freedom consists in doing everything which does not injure another; that law is the expression of the general will; that public burdens should be borne by all the members of the state in proportion to their fortunes; that the elective franchise should be extended to all; and that the exercise of natural rights has no other limit than their interference with the rights of others. Mirabeau endeavoured in vain to induce the Assembly to postpone publishing any declaration of rights until after the formation of the constitution; but the deputies, feeling that a contrary course might imperil their popularity, issued the declaration-a proceeding which Dumont himself afterwards compared to placing a powder-magazine under a building, which the first spark of fire would blow into the air. Louis XVI., under the pressure of the events of the 5th of October, after first refusing, was induced to yield his adhesion to it. The dogma of the equality of mankind on which the declaration rests, had before been set forth in the American Declara tion of Independence of 1776. Thinkers are now much less inclined than they were in the age of Rousseau to build social theories on such abstract, a priori assumptions; and the truth of this doctrine of original equality is directly impugned. Dumont himself asks: Are all men equal? Where is the equality? Is it in virtue, talents, fortune, industry, situation? Are they free by nature? So far from it, they are born in a state of complete dependence on others, from which they are long of being emancipated.' The principles laid down in the Rights of Man were attacked by Edmund Burke in his Reflections on the French Revolution, who represented the declaration as a digest of anarchy. It was in reply to Burke's Reflections that Thomas Paine published in London his Rights of Man, an apology for, and commentary on, the principles of the French constitution, for which he was prosecuted for libel on an information by the attorney-general, and found guilty. RIGID DYNAMICS is that portion of theoretical Dynamics (q. v.) which, based on the theory of the free and constrained motion of points, applies the principles thence deduced to a system of points rigidly connected, so as to bear throughout the whole continuance of their motion the same invariable position with relation to each other; in other words, as no body in nature can be considered as a point, but is truly a system of points, rigid dynamics has for its aim to apply the abstract theory of dynamics to the cases actually occurring in nature. For a long time, problems of this sort were not resolved by any general and adequate method, but each class was worked out according to a method specially applicable to its particular circumstances. The great general principle discovered by the French geometer, commonly known as D'Alembert's principle, which applies equally for specially investigating each particular case, was an inestimable boon to mechanical science. It is thus stated in his Traité de Dynamique: 'In whatever manner a number of bodies change their motions, if we suppose that the motion which each body would have in the following moment, if it were perfectly free, is decomposed into two others, one of which is the motion which it really takes in consequence of their mutual actions, then the other component will be such, that if each body were impressed by a force which would produce it alone, the whole system would be in equilibrium. In this way every dynamical problem can be compelled to furnish an equation of equilibrium, and so be changed into a problem of Statics (q. v.); and thus the solution of a difficult and complex problem is effected by means of the resolution of a much easier one. D'Alembert applied his principle to various problems on the motions and actions of fluids, the in a modified form, the same general property was precession of the equinoxes, &c.; and subsequently, made the basis of a complete system of dynamics, by La Grange, in his Mécanique Analytique. RIGOR MORTIS is the term usually given to the peculiar temporary rigidity of the muscles that occurs shortly after death. It begins immediately have ceased, but before the commencement of after all indications of irritability (see MUSCLE) putrefaction. In the human subject it most commonly begins to shew itself about seven hours after death, although cases are occasionally met with in which 20, or even 30, hours may have elapsed before it begins to appear. This condition of rigidity usually lasts for about 30 hours; but it may pass off in ten hours or less, or may be prolonged to four or six days. The muscles of the neck and lower jaw are first affected, then those of the trunk, then those of the upper extremities, and lastly those of the lower extremities. In its departure, which is immediately followed by decomposition, the same order is followed. Dr Brown-Sequard in the 'Croonian Lecture' for This subject has been admirably discussed by 1861, and contained in The Proceedings of the Royal Society for that year. In this lecture he examines successively the relations existing between muscular irritability, post-mortem rigidity, and putrefaction, chief conclusions: 1. Paralysed muscles are endowed in a variety of cases. The following are his with more irritability than healthy muscles; cadaVeric rigidity sets in late, and lasts long; and putrefaction appears late, and progresses slowly. 2 Experiments made on numerous animals shew that when muscular irritability is increased by a diminution of temperature, the increase has the same effect upon rigidity and putrefaction as when it is caused by paralysis. As a general rule, when there was a difference of 14° to 18° F. in the temperature of two animals of the same age and species, irritability and rigidity lasted twice or three times longer in the cooler animal than in the other, and putrefaction in the former was much less rapid. 3. It was maintained by John Hunter that cadaveric rigidity does not take place after death by lightning; but it is now known that this view is not generally true. When lightning destroys life by producing such a violent convulsion of every muscle in the body that muscular irritability at once ceases, the ensuing rigidity may be of such short duration as to escape notice; but if it causes death by fright, hæmorrhage, or concussion of the brain, cadaveric rigidity will appear as usual. 4. In animals that have been over-driven, hunted to death, &c., rigidity comes on very quickly, lasts for a very short time, and is rapidly succeeded by putrefaction; and various facts quoted by Brown RIGVEDA-RING. Sequard shew that over-exertion acts similarly in man. 5. The nutrition of the muscles exerts a modifying influence on rigidity and putrefaction. In cases of death from decapitation, strangulation, sudden hæmorrhage from a wounded artery, &c., cadaveric rigidity does not begin till 16 or 18 hours after death, and lasts from six to eight days; while in a case of death from exhaustion, after a prolonged typhoid fever, rigidity became evident within three minutes after the last breathing, while the heart was still beating; disappeared in a quarter of an hour, and was at once succeeded by signs of putrefaction before the man had been dead an hour. 6. When death follows violent and prolonged convulsions (as in cases of tetanus, hydrophobia, &c.), cadaveric rigidity sets in soon (usually within an hour after death), and ceases before the end of the tenth hour; and when the convulsions were caused by strychnine, similar results were obtained. From these facts this accomplished physiologist deduces the general law, that the greater the degree of muscular irritability at the time of death, the later the cadaveric rigidity sets in; and the longer it lasts, the later also putrefaction appears, and the slower it progresses.' The exact cause of this rigidity is not accurately known. The old view that it depended on the coagulation of the blood is no longer tenable. It most probably results from the spontaneous coagulation of a fibrinous material contained in the muscular juice. rings have been worn among nations both savage and civilised; but the most universal and most famous use of rings is on the finger. Finger-rings are alluded to in the Books of Genesis and Exodus; Herodotus mentions that the Babylonians wore them; and from Asia they were probably introduced into Greece. The rings worn in early times were not purely ornamental, but had their use as signet-rings. The Homeric poems make no mention of rings, except ear-rings; but in the later Greek legends, the ancient heroes are described as wearing finger-rings; and every freeman throughout Gree:e seems afterwards to have had one. The practice of counterfeiting signet-rings is alluded to as existing in Solon's time. The devices on the earlier rings were probably cut in the gold; but at a later period, the Greeks came to have rings set with precious stones, which by and by passed from articles of use into the category of ornament. Persons were no longer satisfied with one ring, but wore two or three-and their use was extended to women. The Lacedæmonians wore iron rings. The Romans are said to have derived the use of rings from the Sabines; their rings were at first, as those of the Greeks, signet-rings, but made of iron. Every free Roman had a right to wear one; and down to the close of the republic, the iron ring was worn by those who affected the simplicity of old times. Ambassadors, in the early age of the republic, wore gold rings as a part of their official dress-a custom afterwards extended to senators, chief magistrates, and in later times to the equites, who were said to enjoy the jus annuli aurei, from which other persons were excluded. It became customary for the emperors to confer the jus annuli aurei on whom they pleased, and the privilege grew gradually more and more extensive, till Justinian embraced within it all citizens of the empire, whether ingenui or libertini. The signs engraved on rings were very RIMINI (ancient Ariminum), a city of Central and subjects connected with mythology or religion; various, including portraits of friends or ancestors, Italy, province of Forli, in Romagna. It is situated and in the art of engraving figures on gems, the on the river Marecchia, and though the ancient ancients far surpassed artists of modern times. The harbour has been gradually filled up by the sands later Romans, like the Greeks, crowded their fingers brought down by that stream, the port is still the with rings, and the more effeminate among them resort of a large number of vessels engaged in sometimes had a different ring for summer and fisheries, which employ nearly half the population winter. Rings entered into the groundwork of of the town. Pop. 33,272. R. has fine streets, well-many oriental superstitions, as in the legend of built houses, a handsome town-hall with porticoes, Solomon's ring, which, among its other marvels, many fine churches, among others the cathedral sealed up the refractory Jins in jars and cast them built by Leon Battista Alberti, the interior of which into the Red Sea. The Greeks mention various is full of monuments; outside it is adorned with rings endowed with magic power, as that of Gyges, sarcophagi. It has a library, many superior schools, which rendered him invisible when its stone was and two orphan asylums. Among its ancient monu- turned inwards; and the ring of Polycrates, which mental edifices still remaining, may be numbered was flung into the sea to the marble Bridge of Augustus over the Marecchia, and the marble Arch of Augustus. Its manufac- found by its owner inside propitiate Nemesis, and tures are glass and sail-cloth. R. was founded by a fish; and there were the Umbri; it was conquered by the Romans, sacked by Sulla, plundered and destroyed several fucrative traffic of selling persons who made times by the Barbarians, then given by Charle- charmed rings, worn for magne to the Church. the most part by the lower classes. RIGVEDA, the first and principal of the four Vedas. See VEDA. RIMA-SZOMBATH, a market-town of Hungary, on the river Rima, 23 miles north-east of Pesth. Articles in wood are largely manufactured, and there is a trade in linen and bullock's hides. Pop. 8300. RINFORZA'NDO (Ital. strengthening), in Music, a direction to the performer indicating that the sound is to be given with increased tone and emphasis. RING (Sax. ring or hring, a circle or circular line), a circle of gold or other material. The practice of wearing rings has been widely prevalent in different countries, and at different periods. Rings have been used to decorate the legs, arms, feet, toes, neck, fingers, nose, and ears. The pracice of wearing rings suspended from the nose, vhich is bored for that purpose, has been found among various savage tribes, more particularly the South-Sea islanders. Bracelets, necklaces, and ear Various explanations have been given of the connection of the ring with marriage. It would rather appear that wedding-rings were worn by the Jews prior to Christian times. Fig. 1 shews a Jewish marriage ring beautifully wrought in gold filigree, and richly enamelled, now in the possession of Lord Londesborough. It has been said that as the delivery of the signet-ring to any one Fig. 1. |