PUMPS.

them nearer, needlessly increases the friction. Experiments made by Mr Lovick for the Metropolitan Board of Works, shewed that the slip of the lifts which work in the barrel, and are one-eighth of an inch shorter each way than the barrel, averaged 20 per cent. of their motion, and that the useful work done averaged 63 per cent. of the indicator horsepower of the engine working it.

4. The Centrifugal Pump.-These pumps, with reference to those previously described, may be called new, as, though they have been in use in one form or another for at least a century, their merits were not brought prominently forward till the year 1851, when the great efficiency of the models exhibited by Messrs Appold, Gwynne, and Bessemer drew general attention to the subject.

The essential parts of this pump are-1. The wheel to which the water is admitted at the axis, and from which it is expelled at the circumference, by the centrifugal force due to the rotatory motion imparted to it in passing through the rapidly revolving wheel; and 2. The casing or box in which the wheel works, and by which the entering water is separated from that discharged.

Figs. 7 and 8 are a section and plan of a centrifugal pump. The water enters the pump by the

leaves the circumference of the wheel, and enters the circular whirlpool chamber F; so that the interior of the pump may be looked on as a whirlpool, extending from the axle of the wheel to the circumference of the whirlpool chamber. Into this whirlpool the water is drawn at the central orifice of the wheel, and discharged by the pipe G at the circumference of the whirlpool chamber; and the force with which it is discharged, or the height to which it will rise in the pipe G, is measured by the centrifugal force of the water revolving in the whirlpool.

With reference to the efficiency of these pumps, it is impossible to give any accurate estimate, since as high as 70 per cent. of the applied power is claimed to be returned by forms of the pump shewn in figs. 7 and 8, while some other descriptions experimented on in 1851 gave only 18 per cent. of useful effect.

It will be evident, from the above description of the pump, that the height to which the water will be raised depends entirely upon the speed of revolution of the wheel; and it is by this that the application of centrifugal pumps is limited to comparatively low lifts of say less than 20 feet, as the speed for high lifts requires to be greater than can be conveniently and usefully attained in practice. They are best applied when raising large quantities of water through low lifts. It will also be observed, that on account of the simplicity of their parts, and the absence of valves, they are much less liable than other pumps to be choked by the entrance of solid materials. In some descriptions of this pump, the exterior whirlpool chamber is dispensed with; and to the vanes of the wheel is given such a curvature backwards from the direction of motion, that the water leaving the circumference of the wheel is spouted backwards from the vane-passages with a speed equal to that of the wheel in the opposite direction, so that it has only a radial motion with reference to a fixed object; in other words, that the force is acquired from the radial component of the pressure of the vanes, instead of the centrifugal force of the revolving water. Those pumps, however, give the best results which, as the one above described, combine both actions. In all cases, curved vanes are much superior to straight ones. supply-pipes A, A, which lead to the central orifices 5. The Jet-pump.-This pump is worked by of the wheel B, B; it then passes through the pass-water-power, and is worthy of notice on account of ages C, C, formed by the vanes and the side cover- the extreme simplicity of its parts, and of not ing-plates, D, of the wheel. In passing through requiring the care of an attendant while in opera

Fig. 7.

these passages of the wheel, which is made to revolve by power applied to the shaft E, it acquires a rotatory motion, which still continues when it

tion.

Fig. 9 is a representation of this pump, C is the water which it is required to raise to the level of the water D, and B is the water in the stream available for working the pump. The water B passes down the pipe A, and is discharged from the jet or nozzle, E, into the conical pipe F. Round the nozzle is the vacuum-chamber G, at the bottom of which is attached the conical pipe F, and into the side of which the suction-pipe H enters from the water to be pumped. The water, in passing from the nozzle into the conical pipe, carries air with it, and so gradually forms a vacuum in the chamber G, when the water rises into it from the level C, through the pipe H; and it is in turn carried with the jet down the conical pipe into the dischargelevel D. The velocity of the water coming from the jet is gradually retarded by the action of the conical pipe, the speed decreasing as the area of section increases; and the vis viva of its motion is by this retardation converted into a sucking force, drawing the water from the suction-pipe through the vacuum chamber into the conical pipe. The water issuing from the jet will have a speed equal to that pro duced by a column of the height BC, or the sum of

PUN-PUNCH.

PUNCH.

The well-marked peculiarities in the original personification of P., which were a high back, distorted breast, and long nose, were intended to give an increased zest to his witticisms; but these features have been much exaggerated in the now so well-known illustrations of the popular periodical which bears his name.

The performance of P., as generally represented, requires the assistance of only two persons-one to carry the theatre and work the figures, the other

after fish at dinner, for which purpose it is bottled, and when wanted, is iced, either by placing the bottles in rough ice, or by pounding and mixing in fine ice. The principal varieties of punch, in addition to this, are rum, gin, and brandy punches, in which only one of the spirits mentioned is used, and champagne, milk, orange, raspberry, tea, wine punches.

PUNCH, a tool for cutting circular or other shaped pieces out of metal, wood, or other materials. The simplest form of this instrument is shewn in fig. 1, which consists of a piece of steel

d

Fig. 1.

с

formed at one end into a hollow cylinder, a, the end of which at b is ground to a very sharp cutting edge. The other end of the punch at c is made strong and thick, to receive blows from a hammer, and to serve as a handle. When the instrument is in use, the cutting-edge, a, is applied to the surface which is to be perforated, and a blow sufficiently hard is struck on the end of the handle, c, when a circular piece of the material is cut out and left in the hollow part, a, which can be removed at the upper end of the opening at d. The mode of manufacturing such tools is very simple. A piece of square steel-bar is taken, the thickness of which must correspond with the thickness of the handle at c, fig. 1, for which fig. 2 may be taken as the

to bear the box of puppets, blow the trumpet, and sometimes keep up the dialogue with the hero of the piece. The movements of the puppets are managed simply by putting the hands under the dress, making the second finger and thumb serve for the arms, while the forefinger works the head.

Fig. 2.

с

commencement. This is brought up to a sufficient heat in the furnace, and is then beaten or rolled laterally so as to have the shape in fig. 3. In the

Fig. 3.

next stage, the edges, a, a, fig. 4, are brought up; and finally, a mandril is put into the groove thus made, and the edges are brought together, and welded:

α

Fig. 4.

PUNCH, a beverage introduced into England from India, and so called from being usually made of five (Hindu, pantsh) ingredients--arrack, tea, sugar, water, and lemon-juice. As now prepared, punch may be described as a drink, the basis of which is alcohol, of one or more kinds, diluted with water, flavoured with lemon or lime-juice and spices, and sweetened with sugar; sometimes other ingredients are added according to taste, especially wine, ale, and tea. The mixture is usually compounded in a large china bowl made for the purpose, and is served out in glasses by means of a ladle. It is the mandril is then withdrawn, and the tool goes to much more rarely seen now than formerly, which be ground and finished. It will be obvious that, by is not to be regretted, for a more unwholesome skill, punches may be made which will make holes or intoxicating beverage could hardly be com- of almost any shape. The enormous development pounded. The ordinary mixed punch consists of the of our iron manufactures has necessitated the use of following ingredients: the juice of three lemons machine-tools in the place of those made for the squeezed out into a large jug, and one lemon cut into hand, and none of the very ingenious inventions for slices, with the rind on for flavour, twelve ounces of this purpose have played a much more important loaf-sugar, and two quarts of boiling water; after part than the punching-machines, for without them being infused half an hour, and strained off, the liquid the labour of drilling holes in iron plates for is poured into the punch-bowl, and half a pint of rum such objects as steam-boilers, iron ships, bridges, and of brandy are added. A favourite mode of and other great works, would have been so great drinking this composition at present is as a liqueur as to have effectually prevented them from being

PUNCTUATION-PUNJAB.

undertaken. The punching-machine invented by the compulsory payment of money, and failing which, Messrs Roberts and Nasmyth, with recent modifi- with the deprivation of property and liberty. As cations and improvements, is in very general use in the legal consequence of crimes, punishment conall our great engineering works; its essential parts sists chiefly of the infliction of pain on the body, are the punch, lever, and the spring. The punch is and this ranges from capital punishment or death, simply a piece of tough, hard steel of a cylindrical down to imprisonment for a term of years, and, in form, and of the size of the intended holes; it fits some cases, whipping is added; and in military and into a socket, which is suspended over a fixed iron naval offences, flogging. Capital punishment is plate or bench, which has a hole exactly under the inflicted only in case of treason and murder (but punch, and exactly fitting it. In the socket which there are other instances under naval or army disholds the punch is a coiled iron spring, which holds cipline), and in the form of Hanging (q. v.). In up the punch, and allows it to descend when the crimes of less degree, imprisonment, or Penal Servipower is applied, and returns it when the pressure tude (q. v.) for a term of years, is the punishmen is relieved. The lever, when in action, presses on As a general rule, the judge has a discretion to fix the top of the punch, and the plate of metal which the punishment within two defined limits. In the is to be perforated being placed on the iron bench, great mass of the smallest crimes, which are cognisreceives the pressure of the punch with sufficient able by justices of the peace, and are frequently force to press out a disc of metal exactly the termed offences punishable summarily, the usual diameter of the punch, which falls through the hole punishment is a fine or penalty, i. e., a sum of money in the iron bench. The lever is moved by a cam is ordered to be paid by the offender, and if he do on a powerful wheel, which presses upon it until it not pay it, his goods are sold to make up the sum ; can pass; then the lever being relieved, the punch failing which, he is committed to the house of is drawn up by the spring in its socket, ready to correction for a short period of 3, 6, or 12 months; receive the action of the cam when the revolution but, in some of the cases, imprisonment and hard of the wheel again brings it to bear on the lever.labour are imposed in lieu of a fine. The crown The punch itself is always solid, differing entirely in this respect from the hand-tools. This useful machine will perforate thick plates of iron, such as are used for shipbuilding, almost as quickly as a workman with an ordinary hand-punch could perforate thin plates of tin; the holes made are quite true, and are ready to receive the rivets.

PUNCTUATION, the division of a writing into sentences, and the subdivision of these into parts by means of certain marks called points, a great help to the clear exhibition of the meaning and to the pleasant reading of what is written. The ancients were not acquainted with the use of points, or used them very little, and only for oratorical purposes. Punctuation, according to the grammar and sense, is said to have been an invention of the Alexandrian grammarian, Aristophanes; but was so much neglected and forgotten, that Charlemagne found it necessary to ask Warnefried and Alcuin to restore it. It consisted at first of a point called the stigma, and sometimes a line, variously formed and introduced. The system of punctuation now in use was introduced by the Venetian printer, Manutius, in the latter part of the 15th c.; the example was soon and generally followed, and little change has since been found requisite.

PU'NDLER, the name which in Scotland used to be given to a person employed on an estate as hedger, ditcher, forester, and general guardian, in absence of the proprietor. The office of a pundler was probably analogous to that of poynder. In a few cases, the term pundler is still employed.

PU'NIC WARS, the name commonly given to the three great wars waged for supremacy between Rome and Carthage. The Latin word punicus, or ponicus, was the name given by the Romans to the Carthaginians, in allusion to their Phoenician descent. For an outline of the struggle between the two rival powers, see CARTHAGE, ROME, HAMILCAR, HANNIBAL, and the SCIPIOS.-The Romans, who believed, not without reason, that the Carthaginians never sincerely meant to keep any treaty of peace, employed the phrase punica fides, Punic faith,' to denote a false and faithless spirit.

PU'NICA. See POMEGRANATE. PUNISHMENT, in this country, usually means the deprivation of property or liberty, or the infliction of pain on the body of one who commits a zriminal offence. It is not applicable, generally, to civil actions, though these are also followed with

can put an end to a sentence of punishment by a free pardon, or may commute a sentence of death to imprisonment for life.

PUNISHMENT, FUTURE. See HELL

in the British service, include death, by shooting, if PUNISHMENTS, MILITARY AND NAVAL. These, for a disgraceful offence; for serious crimes, flogging, for an offence against discipline-or by hanging, if not exceeding 50 lashes, inflicted with the cat-o'nine-tails on the bare back (see FLOGGING); for minor offences, degradation of rank, imprisonconduct pay, stoppage of leave, &c. Death, degra ment, extra drill, stoppage of grog, loss of gooddation, and loss of leave are the only punishments of those named above which can be inflicted on sentence of a court-martial; he may be cashiered, an officer. An officer can only be punished by dismissed the service, deprived of his regiment or ship; or, in the navy, reduced in rank by being placed at the bottom of the list of officers of his grade. In certain of the German armies, punish

ment is inflicted on the men in the form of strokes with a cane or with the flat of a sabre.

PUNJAB (the Pentapotamia of the Greeks, derives its name from two Persian words, signifying five rivers') is an extensive territory in the northfive great affluents-the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, west of Hindustan, watered by the Indus, and its Beas, and Sutlej, and forms a British possession since February 1849. It is bounded on the W. by the Suliman Mountains, on the N. by Cashmere, and lower course, is called the Ghara. In shape, the on the E. and S. E. by the Sutlej, which, in its territory of the P. resembles an isosceles triangle, the apex of which is at the junction of the Indus and the Punjnud, in lat. about 29° N.; and the base, about 450 miles in length, runs along the Himalayas. The sides are about 600 miles in length. According to the latest returns published in the last statistical tables of the Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom (1862), the area of the P. is 100,406 square miles; and the pop. 14,794,611. The physical character of the northern contrasts strikingly with that of the southern districts. In the north, the whole surface is traversed by spurs from the Himalayas, which enclose deep valleys. In the south, the surface is unbroken by any important eminence, with the exception of the Salt Range, about 2000 feet high, between the Indus and the Jhelum. The country, divided into five doabs,

PUNKAH-PURÂN'A

years.

or interfluvial tracts, and frequently spoken of as in the case of a female, one under the age of 12 the plains of the Indus, has a general slope towards the south-west. The climate in the plains is most oppressively hot and dry in summer, indicating in Lahore 112°, in a tent artificially cooled; but cool, and sometimes frosty, in winter. Little rain falls except in the districts along the base of the Himalayas. The soil varies from stiff clay and loam to sand; but, in general, is sandy and barren, intermixed with fertile spots. The rivers afford abundant means of irrigation. The indigenous vegetation of the P. is meagre. Trees are few in number and small, and fuel is so scarce, that cow-dung is much used in its stead. With an efficient system of agriculture, however, the territories of this part of India might be rendered very productive. Of the ordinary crops, wheat of excellent quality is produced in considerable quantities, and indigo, sugar, cotton, tobacco, opium, buckwheat, rice, barley, millet, maize, and numerous vegetables and fruits The manufacturing industry of this region is very considerable, and is carried on for the most part in the great towns, as Amritsir (q. v.), Lahore (q. v.), Multan (q. v.), &c. Spices and other groceries, dye-stuffs, cloths, metals, and hardware, are imported from the more eastern provinces of British India; and grain, ghee, hides, wool, carpets, shawls, silk, cotton, indigo, tobacco, salt, and horses are exported. The inhabitants are of various races, chiefly Jats, Gujurs, Rajputs, and Patans. Two-thirds of the whole population are Moslems, and of the remaining third, one half are Hindus, and the other half Sikhs. The Jats are the most prominent of the races of the P., and are said to have formed the 'core and nucleus' of the Sikh nation and military force. Of the history of the P., all that is important will be given under the heading SIKHS.

are grown.

PU'NKAH, a gigantic fan for ventilating apartments, used in India and tropical climates. It consists of a light frame of wood, covered with calico, from which a short curtain depends, and is suspended by ropes from the ceiling; another rope from it passes over a pulley in the wall to a servant stationed without; the servant pulls the punkah backwards and forwards, maintaining a constant current of air in the chamber.

PUNT, a heavy, oblong, flat-bottomed boat, useful where stability and not speed is needed. Punts are much used for fishing. Some are fitted for oars; but the more usual mode of propulsion is by poles operating on the bottom. Punting is a very laborious exercise.

PUOZZOLA'NO. See CEMENTS.

PU'PA (Lat. a girl, or a doll), the second stage of insect life after the hatching of the egg. The first stage after the egg is that of Larva (q. v.). In those insects of which the metamorphosis is complete (see INSECTS), the pupa is generally quite inactive, and takes no food. This is the case in the Lepidoptera, the pupa of which is called a Chrysalis or Aurelia, and in the Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. Manifestations of life may indeed be produced by touching, or in any way irritating, the pupa, but it is incapable of locomotion and of eating. It is quite otherwise with the pupae of other orders, which are often very voracious, and resemble the perfect insect in almost everything but that the wings are wanting. The peculiarities of the pupa are noticed in the articles on the different orders and genera of insects.

PUPIL. See EYE.

PUPIL, in the Law of Scotland, means, in the case of a male, one who is under 14 years of age;

PU'PPET, a name (derived from the Lat. pupus, a child or boy, Fr. poupée, a doll) signifying a childlike image. The Italian fantoccini (from fantino, a child), and the French Marionettes (q. v.) are other names for puppets. Puppet-plays, or exhibitions in which the parts of the different characters are taken by miniature figures worked by wires, while the dialogue is given by persons behind the scenes, are of very ancient date. Figures with movable limbs have been found in the tombs of ancient Egypt and Etruria. Originally intended to gratify children, they ended in being a diversion for adults. In China and India they are still made to act behind a curtain (Ombres Chinoises'). In Italy dramas either as movable figures or as shadows and France puppet-plays were at one time carried to a considerable degree of artistic perfection, and even Lessing and Goethe in Germany thought the subject worth their serious attention. In England, they are mentioned under the name of Motions by many of our early authors, and frequent allusions occur to them in the plays of Shakspeare, Ben Jonson, and the older dramatists. The earliest exhibitions of this kind consisted of representations of stories taken from the Old and New Testament, or from the lives and legends of saints. They thus seem to have been the last remnant of the Moralities his contemporaries that the most popular of these of the 15th century. We learn from Ben Jonson and exhibitions at that time were the Prodigal Son, and Nineveh with Jonas and the Whale. Even the Puritans, with all their hatred of the regular stage, did not object to be present at such representations. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, puppet-plays were exhibited in Fleet Street and Holborn Bridgelocalities infested by them at the period of the Restoration. The most noted exhibitions of the kind were those of Robert Powel in the beginning of the 18th century. (See Chambers's Book of Days, vol. ii. 167.) So recently as the time of Goldsmith, scriptural Motions' were common, and, in She Stoops to Conquer, reference is made to the display of Solomon's Temple in one of these shows. The regular performances of the stage were also sometimes imitated; and Dr Samuel Johnson has observed, that puppets were so capable of representing even the plays of Shakspeare, that Macbeth might be represented by them as well as by living actors. These exhibitions, however, much degenerated, and latterly consisted of a wretched display of wooden figures barbarously formed, and decorated without the least degree of taste or propriety, while the dialogues were jumbles of absurdities and nonsense.

The mechanism of puppet-plays is simple. The exhibiter is concealed above or below the stage, works the figures by means of wires, and delivers the dialogues requisite to pass between the characters. The exhibition of Punch (q. v.) is perhaps the only example of this species of acting which exists in this country at the present time.

PURAN'A (literally 'old,' from the Sanscrit pura, before, past) is the name of that class of religious works which, besides the Tantras (q. v.), is the main foundation of the actual popular creed of the Brahminical Hindus (see HINDU RELIGION under INDIA). According to the popular belief, these works were compiled by Vyasa (q. v.), the supposed arranger of the Vedas (q. v.), and the author of the Mahabharata (q. v.), and possess an antiquity far beyond the reach of historical computation. A critical investigation, however, of the contents of the existing works bearing that name must necessarily