The total shipping inwards of the port of Canton was in 1844, vessels 306; tonnag The French imports were entirely from Manilla, and the greater part of the export Danish with Singapore and Copenhagen. German with Singapore and Hamburgh. -the greater part of which was in piece trade of Amoy. So also with other ports. dollars, at 4s. 4d. per dollar, which makes

goods, re-shipped or never landed for wai The object has been to give if possible an £255,273; and the exports 6,593,881 dolla

A

CHAPTER II.

INTERNAL TRADE, COASTING TRAFFIC, AND MARITIME COMMERCE OF CHINA WITH THE ENGLISH, AMERICANS, AND OTHER WESTERN NATIONS.

It is difficult to convey in a succinct form, and without the aid of tabular statements, a clear view of the commerce of China, internal and maritime. Our knowledge of the former is very limited, and excepting Shanghai, almost the whole trade with Europe, America, and the East Indies, centres still in Canton, at the extremity and in one of the most barren provinces of the empire. In order to lay a foundation for further observations and future comparisons, an endeavour will be made to explain the existing commerce of China, beginning with the

INLAND TRADE-China possesses a greater variety of productions, than any country in the world. Whilst at its southern extremity the cocoa-nut still flourishes, its borders on the river Amoor furnish the fur-animals in equal proportion to any obtained in Siberia. The marshy soil and plains of the extensive delta between the Yellow River and Yangtzekang possess all the advantages of the Netherlands and Egypt, whilst Kweichoo, Kokoner, and part of Yunnan vie with Switzerland in towering mountains, and in mineral treasures with the Cordilleras. There is a transition from the most barren soil, worse than the Desert of Saharah, to the most fertile spots in all Asia, and as an allwise Providence allotted to each peculiar riches, the most opposite ones are met in China together. An idea that domestic animals ought never to encroach upon the food of man, has rendered the bullock scarce, and the sheep scanty; and confined the riches of the husbandman to a pig, which lives on refuse, and to a lean goat, browsing on a barren mountain. The jealousy of the government has chased the horse from the plough and waggon, because its subjects might employ the animal in war, and man is compelled to do the labour of the beast. Were it not on that account, China would have rich meadows, large droves of cattle, and wool, as well as hides, for exportation. An all-absorbing desire to possess always grain, and especially rice, in abundance, has made the Chinese husbandman bestow all his care upon this one subject, to the neglect of kitchen vegetables and fruit trees. A perhaps well-founded fear of the mandarins, that if the mines of the country were generally opened, the attention of the people would

102 GOVERNMENT RESTRICTIONS ON IMPROVEMENTS IN CHINA.

be withdrawn from more useful pursuits, has rendered them very strict, in merely permitting the working of a very few, and those only to a certain amount. Were it otherwise, the south-western provinces would export gold, silver and copper, as they did formerly tutenague. But there are the labourers, of an enterprizing, greedy and patient nation, who only require an impulse to fulfil its great destiny in procuring the greatest diversity of productions that can possibly be collected in any single empire.

From the most ancient times, the great use of water communication was discovered; and the nation has for more than two thousand years been endeavouring to make canals, wherever natural obstacles did not prove insurmountable. Thence arose the inland communication between the Yangtzse and Canton, and the extensive hydraulic works which connect the capital with every province. Though the primary object by digging them, was to furnish irrigation for the fields, still there is throughout the whole breadth of the land, not a single important point to which canals do not diverge; there is not a city, except in the high mountains, without being intersected by them; and there is moreover not the smallest one, on which boats do not ply, whilst some on the great channels of intercourse are covered with vessels of every description. The avenues of the inland trade are therefore open and practicable in every direction. But careful as the Chinese are in this respect, they are equally indifferent about roads, which are almost unknown. Hence the rude state of the mountainous parts, and uncivilized condition of north-western China, where few canals exist.

If we examine the character of the nation at large, their gainseeking propensities are prominent, and in the steady pursuit of lucre, no matter what the means are, they challenge a compeer.

Pedling, trafficking, and trading are therefore instinctive with them, and a child which has scarcely learnt to speak, will lay out a few cash to buy sugar-cane or cakes, and retail them by the roadside; a penny thus gained, is more esteemed than a pound obtained without cheating or bargaining. The first thing an infant learns is "to lisp in numbers;" the first enterprize of the urchin is to cypher; and it is a rarity to find a man not versed in this science, for the very coolie and clown keep their accounts. China exhibits one grand mart of traders, everything is purchasable, everybody vendable; the Emperor trades, his ministers' traffic in everything, and where such examples are given we must expect to find myriads of imitators. We ought therefore not to wonder at the ingenuity which converts all substances into articles of commerce, nor at the fertility of genius to discover the best market; where such a spirit prevails, we may easily suppose, that the inland trade will be flourishing.

Notwithstanding, however, this practical commercial tendency of the nation, the government has adopted a different theory.

AGRICULTURE THE SOURCE OF PERMANENT RICHES. 103

Considering agriculture the only source of permanent riches, and trade often hostile to the pursuit of such a laborious profession, various laws have been issued to check its growth. The merchant, by being constantly on the move, contracts ideas which are not very much in accordance with the orthodox policy of the ruling authorities, and hence the adoption of what is termed a salutary restraint. Thus there are laws and by-laws without end, hindrances, prohibitions, regulations, filling pondrous volumes, to abridge the liberty of the subject in disposing of his goods and chattels to the best advantage, and to try the cunning of the subject, how to circumvent and to evade. The supreme government pretends to look upon all trade with utter contempt, and hence has never burdened it with heavy duties, leaving its minions to oppress it by exactions, fees and grinding, so as to render smuggling inevitable, and a custom officer's situation the most lucrative office in the gift of the crown, and the proper position of a Mantchoo Tartar.

When taking, however, the whole of the despotic nature of the government into consideration, the restrictions upon the inland trade have not been so severe, as from its grasping character might have been expected. One sound principle of the autocratism of China is never to oppose public opinion if too powerful, but to reserve for itself the privilege of making prohibitions; not to punish the many of transgressors, for that would endanger its very existence, but to choose a few individuals and make them the scapegoats for the whole. Thus have the Natives overcome the repugnance of their rulers, and their endless annoyance in confining traffic in a narrow sphere, by their numbers and determination, accompanied by a willingness to offer up occasionally a holocaust to appease the wrath of the Mandarins. Every country, as thickly populated as China, has an immense pressure upon its resources, but the very circumstance of over population calls forth a spirit of invention in those who are pressed for a bare subsistence to prolong life, and has most powerfully operated upon commerce, not only in discovering the articles of trade, but also in lowering the profits by incessant vigorous competition. The princes of China were early taught to issue the least valuable metal coin in existence, to make it divisable in endless fractions, because the individual share amongst the majority of the nation in the riches of the country, was so very trifling, as to render a silver piece for the very few only available. This being the medium of small transactions, the shareholders in every speculation are necessarily numerous, and where a capital of one hundred dollars is required, there are perhaps ten partners. Even where a capitalist stands at the head, and furnishes all the cash, his people prefer having a small share, however trifling soever, in the concern, to receiving a settled sum of monthly or annual wages; for the gains by traffic, how great the difficuities soever,

104

CHINESE A NATION OF PEDLARS.

are more precious to a Chinaman, than money obtained directly without barter and bargaining.

Amongst the myriads of petty traffickers and pedlars, there is however a considerable spirit of combination, so that even small traders have their meetings, where resolutions are passed, and measures conjointly adopted, for successfully carrying their designs into effect, and insuring a flourishing commerce. Of the extent and capital of such unions there are numberless gradations, from petty hucksters to large established companies, who however with the exception of the salt merchants, are not as such privileged, or under a charter of government. The Mandarins have wisely refused to interfere forcibly with the proceedings and enterprize or combinations by which money is realized, and merely content themselves either with sharing in or swallowing up the profits.

A few general remarks on these associations may be useful. 1st. Shopkeepers who trade in similar goods form themselves into bodies, not so much for mutual assistance, but for selling their articles at a certain rate, or for stopping trading altogether, if either the public or the Mandarins will not accede to their propositions. In enforcing these obligations upon all the members, they are very strict, and whosoever clandestinely evades their rules, is sure to be persecuted with inveterate vengeance.

2nd. People that trade to certain parts of the empire form themselves into sureties for mutual protection, assistance and administration, and thus ensure a better treatment of their pers ɔns, and security to their trade. The most celebrated associations of this description are the Shanse merchants, who with their caravans traverse the whole breadth of the empire, and journey in far greater numbers than even Mohomedan pilgrims, over Arabia, the deserts now tributary to China, as well as Mongolia, Mantchouria, Turkestan, and Tibet, until they arrive at the confines of Bokhara and Siberia. They are men of large capital, and their investments are considerable. In this spirit of enterprize, cheerful endurance of fatigues for the sake of gain, perseverance and patience, they are perhaps unsurpassed.

3rd. In each large empire, where a number of merchants from a certain province or large city trade, there are large, commodious, and neat houses erected by the countrymen, known under the name of Hwuykwan, to which generally a temple or some garden is attached; and here the merchants assemble at stated times, hold deliberations, propose and reject measures, and act in many respects as a company. These are very respectable institutions, command considerable capital, and act frequently with much unanimity and

success.

4th. Monopolists.-The Chinese government having prohibited the unlimited use of some articles, such as saltpetre, sulphur, iron, and horses, looks to trustworthy men, that they shall deal in them