believed in the existence of zoomorphic beings, who dwelt in caverns near lakes and hills, and who created men, gave them weapons-slings, hows and arrows-and taught them how to use them.

A century later, about 1885, Ramon Lista gives a description of the religious ideas of the Patagonians which shows some resemblance to the foregoing. The supreme being is called El-lal; he is a strong spirit, clever, and kind; he is the creator of the world and of the Patagonians. After having cleared the world of the wild animals which infested it, he taught men the secrets of obtaining fire and of building a shelter for themselves. The myths relating to El-lal were still well known to the old men of the end of the 19th century. The following is a résumé of them :

El-lal came into the world in a strange way. His father Nosjthej (a kind of Saturn), wishing to devour him, had snatched him from his mother's womb. He owed his rescue to the intervention of the terguerr, a rodent animal, which carried him away to its cave; this his father tried in vain to enter. From the mother's horrible wound, inflicted by her husband, sprang a river of crystal-clear water, which still exists in the

neighbourhood of Teckel, near the sources of the river Senguerr. After having learned from the famous rodent the properties of different plants and the directions of the mountain-paths, El-lal himself invented the bow and arrow, and with these weapons began the struggle against the wild animals-puma, fox, condor-and conquered them all. But the father returned. Forgetting the past, El-lal taught him how to manipulate the bow and the sling, and joyfully showed him the trophies of the chase-tortoise shells, condors' wings, etc. Nosjthej took up his abode in the cave and soon acted as master of it. Faithful him across the Andes, but, when on the point of reaching him, he saw a dense forest arise between him and his son. El-la was saved; he descended to the plain, which meanwhile had become peopled with men. Among them was a giant, Goshy-e, who devoured children; El-lal tried to fight him, but he was invulnerable; the arrows broke against his body. Then El-lal transformed himself into a gad-fly, entered the giant's stomach, and wounded him fatally with his sting. It was not until he had accomplished all those feats, and had proved himself a clever huntsman, that El-lal thought of marrying. He asked the hand of the daughter of the sun, but she did not think him worthy of her and escaped from him by a subterfuge. Dis. enchanted, El-lal decided to leave the earth, where, he considered, his mission was at an end, since men, who had in the

to his fierce instincts, he wanted to kill his son; he followed

meantime appeared in the plain and in the mountain-valleys, had learned from him the use of fire, weapons, etc. Borne on the wings of a swan across the ocean towards the east, he found eternal rest in the verdant islands which rose among the waves at the places where the arrows shot by him had fallen on the surface of the waters.

The myth of El-lal shows the condition of the Patagonians in pre-historic times and their struggles with their conquerors, and gives a glimpse into religious thought in evolution.

Alongside of this superior creative being, who, as soon as his work was accomplished, went to rest and had no more to do with human affairs, the Patagonians believe in the spirit of good who protects men, especially in cases of illness; and in the spirit of evil, represented by several invisible beings gifted with supernatural powers. One of these is Maïpe, always associated with the darkness of night, the violent wind of the desert, and other phenomena that trouble the minds of primitive men; another is Keron-kenken, a monster who devours newly-born children and drinks the tears of their broken-hearted mothers. The name keren is often given to all wicked spirits. The word wallishen or qualicho, which we find used by certain writers to denote an evil spirit, is of Araucanian origin.

3. Sacrifices, witchcraft, and disease.-As was said above, each Patagonian family used to have a special shaman, who had charge of the religious ceremonies, and who went for this purpose to the summit of a hill near the encampment. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th cent. these ceremonies took place in the shaman's tent. At the present day they seem to be abandoned,

1 This is the case with the young Patagonians to the present day.

but the shamans still exist. Their special duty is to cure the sick.

After having exhausted the meagre resources of his medical art-e.g., lotions of cold water, blood-letting, and massage-the shaman has recourse to the great methods: he sings incanta. tions beside the invalid, then proceeds to suck the part of the body through which he intends to extract the spirit who is causing the illness. He then shows the relatives who surround the patient this spirit in the form of an arrow, an insect, etc. The sacrifice of an animal, usually a mare, is also practised to cure invalids. All the relatives and friends of the sick man meet near the camp, to which the youths and boys lead the the most skilled of them strikes the fatal blow in the chest with mare to be sacriticed. Some men of the clan fall upon it, and a very sharp knife; he then extracts the heart, and, holding it in his hand, walks several times round the animal, which dies Its flesh is then divided among those present in convulsions. and consumed on the spot. The head and hoofs are fixed to a pole painted with yellow ochre, which is planted on the top of a neighbouring hill by a group of horsemen.

The profession of shaman is hereditary, and may be exercised by either men or women. Female shamans are even more numerous than male. It is a profession in which certain risks are run, for, if the patient treated by the shaman dies, the shanian himself is often put to death.

Shamans are also sorcerers. Usually they are taciturn, suspicious persons, who keep aloof from the rest of the people. Their magic power resides in some small rough perforated stones, which are handed from father or mother to son and are jealously guarded, for their loss entails the loss of the shamans' magic power. The Patagonians believe that the smallest particle detached from the body-nails, hair, and even the rags of their clothes-may become transformed into an evil spirit, possessing magical power; they therefore burn these things as quickly as possible. Sorcery is called shoik'n, and every man can practise it, though to a less degree than the shaman. Thus they sometimes try to cure an illness without the help of the shaman; the whole family gather round the invalid and shout and yell fiercely; then some of the men go out on horseback and pursue to a great distance the spirit which has left the body. Sometimes they send the invalid out on horseback, quite naked, in intense cold, for, according to the Patagonians, the best remedy for all ills is great noise and great cold (Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia, p. 86 f.).

4. Burial customs.-The Patagonians seem to believe in a kind of transmigration of the soul. Their custom of burying the dead in a squatting position, resembling that of the foetus in the mother's womb, would perhaps not be a sufficient proof of this statement, if there were not others. But it is a well-known fact that the Patagonians bury with the corpse or burn on the tomb not only food, but also most of the things-weapons, utensils, clothes, etc.-that belonged to the dead man. In ancient times they even immolated his favourite horses. Nowadays they are satisfied with burying the harness, which they unearth after a year has passed. All these customs show that they wish to supply the dead with all that is necessary for continuing life in a new form. Moreover, Viedma" categorically states that the Patagonians of his time were persuaded that the soul of an old man passes into the body of a young member of his family, and, if the latter dies before the age of the man whose soul he possesses, the soul remains united to the body until the expiry of the number of years necessary to reach the age of the first possessor of the soul. The dead man has to cross a mysterious ocean (Jono) to reach the other side,' where he leads a life similar to that which he had led on earth, except that the guanacos there are more abundant and hunting is more successful. He remains there until he becomes deified and disappears into celestial space, where there is neither suffering nor sorrow. The Patagonians believe in another soul, a kind of 'double' or ghost, which

continues to live after the man's death and prowls about the abode of his relatives. The fear inspired by these ghosts is so great that the Patagonians must not pronounce the name of the dead man, lest they should attract the attention of the 'double." This is sometimes the cause of changes in the Tehuelche language; e.g., not long ago fat was called ham in that language, but, when a Patagonian who had this word as a proper name was on the point of death, his relatives and friends replaced the name by golosjku; nowadays ham is forgotten. The dead are usually buried under a heap of stones, sometimes painted red (tchenke). At the present time the bones are exhumed after a certain period (a custom borrowed from the Araucanians) to be painted red.

5. Marriage customs.-Marriage is endogamous; but even at the end of the 18th cent. chiefs had to take their wives from another tribe (Viedma). This was probably a survival of primitive exogamy. Marriage does not require any religious ceremony. In early times, however, the shaman recited some invocations and gave advice to the newly wedded pair. The basis of marriage is the purchase of the woman from her parents. Perhaps the scarcity of women explains the long maintenance of this custom. It is said that there are three men for every woman among the Patagonians, probably on account of the hard conditions of life for the woman, on whom devolves a number of laborious tasks the setting up and taking down of the tents, the gathering of berries and roots, preparation of food, weaving, etc. A marriage takes place as follows:

After acquiring renown as a skilled huntsman, the young man goes to the tent of his future wife's parents and makes his proposal, mentioning the number of horses or pieces of silver that he offers for her. Usually he offers two horses to each of the future wife's brothers. If the parents accept this 'gift,' the matter is settled; they then give presents to the suitor in exchange. Next day the newly wedded couple take up their abode in a tent which they build with the relatives on both sides, and there they receive and entertain their friends. The whole affair ends in a great feast, with dancing and immoderate use of laama (brandy). On that day dogs are not allowed to touch food-not even the leavings of the feast.

Polygamy is allowed, but seldom practised. In former times chiefs had as many as twelve wives. After the death of the husband, when the period of mourning is over, the wife, especially if she is no longer young, may cohabit with any man of her tribe for any length of time. We must not conclude from this that the morals of Patagonian women are loose, for young girls are virtuous as a rule, and adultery is rare among the married.

The birth of a child is celebrated with feasting and dancing. It is also accompanied by the following ceremony:

The child is placed for a moment in the inside of an animal which has just been sacrificed by being slit from head to tail and having its entrails removed. They believe that by means of this operation the child will become a good horseman (Prichard, p. 96). The child is then measured, and on the following day the whole encampment knows how many horres (a native measure equal to the length of the hand) he is in height.

6. Social organization.-The immediate members of a family all live in the same tent (kau); but each couple is separated from the others in the tent by curtains of skins. They have food in common. Property is individual, and is transmitted from father to son. If there is no son, the inheritance goes to the nearest relatives-first to the women, then to the men. Consanguinity is recognized to the fourth generation.

The Patagonians have no chiefs of the ordinary kind, although they recognize the superiority of certain men who are richer, more eloquent, or more skilful huntsmen than the others. The powers of the chiefs in former times were more extensive: they conducted warlike expeditions, and acted as supreme judges in disputes between people of the

same encampment. Nowadays they act as intermediaries between the Whites and their compa triots on various occasions; they also conduct collective hunts-battues organized by several bands of hunters accompanied by their half-wild dogs. The Patagonians possess slaves, usually women, whom they have captured, after victorious battles, as a result of incursions on neighbouring territories. Hence we come across Fuegian slaves in their tents (Spegazzini, Anales de la sociedad cientifica Argentina, xvii. 236).

LITERATURE.-T. Falkner, Description of Patagonia, Here

ford, 1774; F. de Viedma, Descripcion de la costa meridional
mentos...
patagonica, in P. de Angelis, Collecion de obras y docu
Rio de la Plata, Buenos Aires, 1836-40, v.; G. C.
Musters, At Home with the Patagonians, London, 1871; C.
Spegazzini, 'Costumbres de los Patagones,' Anales de la so-
Ramon Lista, Viaje al pais de los Onas, do. 1887; P. A.
ciedad cientifica Argentina, xvii. [Buenos Aires, 1884] 221f.;
Segers,Habitos y costumbres de los indios Aonas (Onas),
Boletin del Instituto geografico Argentino, xii. [1891] 56 ff.;
Lista, Los Indios Tehuelches, Buenos Aires, 1894; H. H.
Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia, London, 1902;
F. Outès, La edad de la piedra en Patagonia,' Anales del
Museo nacional de Buenos-Aires, III. v. [1905] 203; Lehmann-
Nietsche, 'El grupo linguistico Tshon,' Revista del Museo de
La Plata, xii. [1913] 217.
J. DENIKER.

PATALIPUTRA.—See PATNA.

PATANJALI.-Patañjali is regarded in India as the founder of the Yoga system. Since, however, Patanjali, who is celebrated also as a grammarian, lived in the 2nd cent. B.C., and the tical, can be shown to have existed in India several doctrines of the Yoga, both theoretical and prac hundreds of years earlier, this tradition must be understood to imply merely that Patañjali in the Yogasutras for the first time gave literary form to the Yoga doctrines. The scanty information that we possess on the life of Patañjali is full of legends and contradictions.

LITERATURE.-Rajendralāla Mitra, Yoga Aphorisms, Calcutta, 1883, Pref. p. lxvi ff.; F. Max Müller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, London, 1899, pp. 156 f., 410 ff.

R. GARBE.

PATARINI (also Paterini, Patrini, Patharistæ, Patarelli). This is the name by which the Cathari, or Albigenses (q.v.), were frequently designated in the 13th and 14th centuries, but, after that time, it was more vaguely employed to denote heretics in general. The etymology of the term has been much disputed (see C. Schmidt, Histoire et doctrine des Cathares, Paris, 1848-49, ii. 278-279). Its earliest use, as applied to the Cathari, is perhaps that in a canon of the Lateran Council of 1178, where it occurs, along with Publicani (q.v.), as an alternative designation for Cathari (C. de Vic and J. Vaissette, Hist. générale de Languedoc, Paris, 1872-90, vi.286; see also 222). The best authenticated etymology associates the term with the Pataria in Milan, a democratic party in that city, in the 11th cent., whom their aristocratic rivals contemptuously designated as Paterini,' or

ragamuffins'; 'eisque paupertatem improperantes Paterinos, id est pannosos vocabant' (Bonizo, in PL cl. 825); cf. 'les Gueux' in the Low Countries in the 16th century. The Paterins largely followed the teaching of Ariald, the fanatical denouncer of a married clergy in the 11th century. As the Cathari also decried marriage on the part of ecclesiastics, and, partly on account of their poverty and still more, perhaps, from their desire to escape observation in their assemblies for worship, also sought out obscure localities, their defamers naturally availed themselves of these features to transfer to them the epithet which had formerly been applied to the followers of Ariald, while the quarter in which they resided also became known as Pataria, and in more recent times as Contrada de' Patari.

J. BASS MULLINGER.

PATH (of the gods or of the soul).-The word 'path' and its synonyms, it is obvious, lend themselves readily to specifically religious and ethical applications; but the most highly developed technical employment of this nature is found in the literatures of India and of Persia.

1. India. In the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda the word 'path' (Skr. pantha-, pathi-, path-; adhvan-; gâtu-, and derivatives) has the usual literal meanings as applied to ways on earth and to the courses of the heavenly bodies either as such or as deities, and figurative meanings such as the way unto sleep and the path of man's life. In addition, it has two main religious significations: (a) the path of the gods, and (b) the path of the fathers.

(a) The path of the gods is the way between the world of the gods and the world of men; it was created and is kept in repair by the fire-sacrifice with the drinking of the soma-juice, and by the devout thought or meditation of the pious worshippers. Even more definitely, this path or these paths (for there is no consistency in the number) are said to have been first made by Atharvan, the mythical first fire-priest, through his institution and practice of the fire-sacrifice, though at other times other ancient seers, and the gods Bṛhaspati, Agni, Indra, and Soma, are severally called 'pathmakers.' Agni, the fire, both as physical fire and as god of the fire, is termed the knower of the ways,' for by them he comes down to earth to the sacrifice and kindles the holy fuel, and by them he hastens back to heaven to invite the gods to come down to earth to the sacrifice, where they may sit on the kusa-grass round the holy fire. With or without this formal invitation of Agni, the gods (Indra, Varuna, Aryaman, Savitṛ, Puşan, Aramati, the asvins, the maruts, the rbhus, etc., are mentioned in this connexion) come down by these paths to the sacrifice, where they vicariously, through the priest, enjoy the drinking of the soma. Elsewhere Agni is spoken of as bringing to the gods by the paths the viands and the soma-drink, or other offerings; by them either the aśvins or the eagle conveys to Indra the soma; by them, before the sacrifice, the prayers ascend to Agni and Indra; the soma is appealed to, to put them into fit condition for the ascent of a new song of praise and petition. This is the path of amṛta, or immortality, by which the rbhus, after drinking the soma, were able to attain places among the gods; it was by songs, however, that the angirases built their way to immortality. But death is warned to keep away from this path that the gods tread. At other times as well as at the time of the sacrifice the gods come to the earth by these paths, which extend from the seat of the highest god, far beyond the vision of man; yet man is thought of as wandering along the path of the gods, during the sacrifice, though arrival at the abode of the gods is felt to be beyond attainment. These paths are characterized as bathed in light, straight, ancient, dustless, easy to go, thornless, godtrodden.

(b) The path of the fathers, or pitrs (the spirits of the ancestors), is the path leading from the world of the living to the world of the dead. It was originally discovered by Yama, the first of men to die, and hence is called the path of Yama.' Others followed in his path, and made their way to the abode of the dead, so that it is occasionally called the path of the ancient ones.' This path is dark, fearful, frightful, forward-going, descending; Agni, in his manifestation as the fire which consumes the corpse, is directed to go this way and

the dead man makes his way to his new abode, he must pass the 'two dogs of Sarama,' the sun and the moon, which are represented now as guarding the path and driving away the wolf, and now as dangerous obstacles to the passage of the_soul. Puşan is implored to protect this road. Those who have gone this path cannot come back-a Vedic idea, uttered before the origin of the belief in metempsychosis; but, though they cannot return to resume life in this world, still the pitrs may return by this path for a brief space to partake of the offerings at the sacrifices which are made to the souls of the dead.

The path of the pitrs is not infrequently confused with the path of the gods, and is described as made by the ancient seers or by the pitrs, and extending to heaven or to the lofty sky, bringing us into association with day and light, with sun and moon.

In the Upanisads there are four different ways or paths. for the soul after death: (1) the soul arrives at its new home at once after death, without intervening travel or experiences; (2) the soul returns into the universe; (3) the soul travels on the way of the fathers, through murk and night, in the days of the waning moon, to the moon as the place of the dead; (4) the soul goes by the path of the gods to the regions of light, whence there is no return; this last is for those who have earned their final release from the trammels of the fleshly body, and go to the sun as final abode, nevermore to be reincarnated.

Certain other specialized uses of the word 'path' in the Vedic texts deserve mention.

(c) The path of the soma-juice.-When the plant soma is pressed for the extraction of the juice to be used in the ritual, the juice is spoken of as flowing through the sieve into the pail by a splendid path, or by straightest paths, which it makes for itself, dustless, hundredfold or thousandfold; it flows, trickles, hastens, or rushes roaring along them; the streams of the juice cover the path as by a wagon. The mode of expression is the effect of the exaggerated Hindu imagery, tending here as elsewhere to predicate the most exalted attributes for that which is being glorified.

(d) The path of rta, or righteousness, is a term which may be applied to any path, literal or figurative, which is not inconsistent with good morality. While at times used almost as we may use 'the path of right conduct,' it is both a vaguer and a more inclusive term, sometimes synonymous with the path of the gods, sometimes with the conduct of the sacrifice, sometimes with proper behaviour, and is used even of the course of the waters which Indra released (see below (f)). By following the path of rta man passes unscathed through evil or through sorrow and suffering.

The aryaṣṭāngamārga (Pāli, ariyō aṭṭhangikō maggō), or 'noble eightfold path,' of Buddhism is a somewhat similar idea to this, and is the way pointed out by Buddha for escape from the misery of existence, consisting of right views, right thoughts, right words, right actions, right living, right exertion, right recollection, right meditations.

(e) The path to fortune, to welfare, to power, to the winning of riches, etc., is constantly mentioned in the Vedas; and Indra, Visnu, Agni, Soma, Pūṣan, Bhaga, the dawn, the aśvins, the maruts, the rbhus, etc., are implored to prepare it for men, or to lead men to it. This path is not sharply distinguished from the path of rta, nor from the path of the gods, but at times they merge into one another.

The path of the waters.-Indra is said to have slain the dragon or demon which restrained the

waters, and then, by bursting open the clouds, or the mountains, in which the waters were confined, to have set them free to run in their paths over the earth. Less often it is Varuna who builds the paths by which the waters flow to the sea. The myth is, of course, derived from the phenomenon of seasonal droughts and rains in India.

2. Persia. In the religion of Zoroaster the word 'path' (Avestan pantay-, path-, patha-) has much the same development as in the Veda. In the oldest Zoroastrian texts, the Gāthās of the Avesta, we find the path of asha (identical etymologically with Skr. rta), or righteousness, which is straight, profitable, and easily traversable, and leads the faithful follower of the religion to paradise (garo demana, 'the home of song'). This path is revealed to the pious by Ahura Mazdah and his archangels; it is spoken of also as the 'path of Vohu Manah'(' good thought,' one of the Avestan archangels), founded by Ahura Mazdah and Asha (personified as an archangel), and taught by Asha; it is the path to Asha; it is the path of the religion, or of the right teaching.

The picture of the journey of the soul upon this path is given in some detail in the later writings of the religion.

For three days after death the soul hovers near the body, but on the morning of the fourth day flies away, wafted by a fragrant breeze or suffocated by a stinking wind, according to his deserts. Presently he is met by a beautiful maiden or by a frightful hag, who also typify his previous life and religion. He arrives finally at the tribunal of the judges, Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu, and his good deeds are weighed against his bad deeds. If the good deeds prevail, he sets out across the bridge of the Chinvat, or divider,' which passes across the abyss of

hell to heaven, and he finds the bridge broad and easy to ascend, until he arrives in paradise. But the soul whose evil deeds

outweigh his good deeds finds the bridge growing narrower and narrower and more difficult to mount, until he plunges off and down into hell for his everlasting punishment.

3. General.-In other lands there is hardly the same definite use of specific words in these specialized meanings, though every religion naturally has its own version or versions of the way traversed by the soul after death; among the American Indians, e.g., the soul is generally represented as travelling to the westward, supplied with provisions, and as reaching the land of his spirit-ancestors after passing successfully some obstacle.

LITERATURE.—1. The passages of the Rigveda and Atharvaveda may be traced by H. Grassmann's Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda, Leipzig, 1873, and W. D. Whitney's 'Index Verborum to the Atharva-Veda,' in JAOS xii. [1881] (both of which are complete word-concordances), under the appropriate words. See also R. G. Kent, The Vedic Path of the Gods and the Roman Pontifex,' in Classical Philology, viii. [1913] 318-326; and esp. H. Oldenberg, Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die Anfange des Buddhismus, Göttingen, 1915, pp. 106 f., 145, 344 f. On the two dogs of Sarama' see M. Bloomfield, Cerberus the Dog of Hades, Chicago and London, 1905.

2. The Gathic passages are Yasna, xxxi. 9, xxxiii. 5, xxxiv. 12, xliii. 3, xlvi. 4, 1. 4, li. 13, 16, liii. 2; other passages may be traced by means of C. Bartholomae, Altiranisches Wörterbuch, Strassburg, 1906, pp. 843, 847 f. The journey of the soul is described, with references to the sources, by A. V. Williams

Jackson, Die iranische Religion,' §§ 82-84, in W. Geiger and E. Kuhn, Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, do. 1895-1904, ii. 684 1.

3. See E. B. Tylor, PC, London, 1913, i. 348-350, 359 f.; A. L. Kroeber, Indian Myths of South Central California,' in the Univ. of California Publications: American Archæology and Ethnology, vol. iv. no. 4 [1906-07], p. 217; F. G. Speck, 'Notes on Chickasaw Ethnology and Folk-Lore,' in JAFL xx. [1907] 58. R. G. KENT.

PATHĀNS.-See AFGHANISTAN.

PAȚICCA-SAMUPPĀDA. — Paticca-samuppada (causally continuous' or 'collective up. rising') is the name of a central doctrine in early Buddhism and in all Theravada Buddhism. It is also called the Nidana ('basis' or 'ground,' i.e. cause) doctrine, or the Paccayakāra (‘related conditions'), and is referred to in the Pali Suttas as Ariya-Naya (the noble [or Ariyan = Buddhist] method or system'). The first, second, and fourth

names are canonical, but the third occurs only as a (late) title in the third and more recent section, the Abhidhamma-Pitaka. European Indianists call the doctrine causal genesis,' 'dependent origination,' or 'theory of the twelve causes.'

The doctrine so designated is a formulated series of terms (1) expressing the interrelated or mutually dependent order obtaining throughout the sphere of sentient phenomena in the life of creatures, (2) considered from the point of view of sentience. In other words, it states that the salient features of sentient life reveal an order of mutually dependent occurrences, throwing off, as they evolve, an ever-recurring outcrop of painful feeling.

This is the burden of the formula stated and applied in detail. But there is also a concise and abstract version of the formula, in which the application to sentient phenomena is eliminated, and which is therefore nothing less than a formula of causation in general. Sometimes this universal statement is prefixed to the fuller formula; sometimes it represents it in brief; once or twice it is used independently. It runs: This being present, that becomes (or happens); from the arising of this, that arises. This being absent, that does not become; from the cessation of this, that ceases.'

In the Pali only one and the same demonstrative adjective, 'this' (idam), is used, and not the pair this, that' (idam, asu). But this should not lead the reader to see in the formula a set of merely identical propositions. Páli diction does not distinguish between two terms in our way; but the context invariably shows that there are two terms and not one.

This abstract version does not occur in either the Sutta or the Vinaya Buddha-legend; nevertheless in certain Suttas the Buddha is represented as teaching it, and also as calling it Dhamma, and Ariyan method (Majjhima, ii. 32; Samyutta, sions with persons of education, lay and religious, v. 388; Anguttara, v. 184). It is used in discusbut is obviously not suited to the theme of a saviour of his fellow-men wrestling in thought how language of deep religious emotion and romance in to find a way of escape for the world, nor to the which that theme is embodied, and through which

the Mahapadana, or sublime legend,' appealed so widely and powerfully to all sorts and conditions

of men.

Dhamma and identified with it (Majjhima, i. 191). The applied and expanded formula is also termed It constitutes, in fact, an expansion of the second and third of the so-called 'four Ariyan truths or facts' put forward in the Buddha's first sermon, and considered as the nucleus of his teaching, viz. truth as to the cessation or suspension of the the truth as to the genesis or cause of ill, and the cause of ill. As expressing a cosmic truth, it was considered as valid eternally and from eternity, independently of the advent of a Tathagata (or Buddha), not to mention any action by a deity. As a truth that became buried and forgotten for ages at a time, under mythologies and theologies, the function of a Buddha was to re-discover and revive it.

'Whether Tathāgatas arise or not, this elemental datum (dhātu) stands as the establishing of things as effects. . . as the cause of this and that. Concerning this . . . a Tathāgata becomes enlightened and penetrates it .. and he declares ... makes it manifest, and behold! he saith' (here follows the formula in detail). Thus these stable, constant, immutable elements are each called a causal term (paticca-samuppada) (Samyutta, ii. 25. 3; cf. Kathāvatthu, vi. 2, tr. in Points of Controversy, London, 1915, pp. 187, 387). Hence this re-discovery plays a great part in the Buddha-legend-the creed as to the process by which each Buddha in turn grasps the principle governing the series of terms as a fundamental truth of sentient life.

The oldest account of the re-discovery of the causal order in its application to the facts of sentient life is probably that contained in the Mahā

padāna of the Digha-Nikāya (ii. 1; tr. T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, ii. 1). The scene is the shade beneath a tree famed thereafter as the Bodhi- (or Bo-) tree (tree of enlightenment'). Hither, after years of unsatisfy ing study under teachers, and of independent selfinflicted austerities, equally sterile (Majjhima, i. 163–167, 242–249), the Buddha-about-to-be comes, not faint and emaciated, but in restored health, to grapple, not with systems or abstractions, but with the order and tendency of sentient facts as they appear to him. The fact of ageing, or decay and disease, the fact of death insurmountable by any sentient being whatever in earth or heavenbecause inseparable from the essence of life itselfand a passionate pity for all sentient life in helpless subjugation to their sway still hold his thoughts: And for this suffering no one knows of any way of escape, even from decay and death. O, when shall a way of escape from this suffering be made known?... Then to him it occurred: "What now being present, is decay-and-dying also present? Conditioned by what is decay. and-dying?" Then to him thinking as to means arose penetration of insight: "Where birth is present, decay-and-dying

come to be; decay-and-dying are conditioned by birth "' (Dia

logues, ii. 23 f.).

twelfth links, or, taking the formula in its usual or forward or time-order, the first and second links. These two complete the traditional or doctrinaire presentment of the formula, and appear also in the other canonical versions of the legend. These occur in the Samyutta-Nikāya, ii. 5 (or fourth Sutta of the Nidana-Samyutta), where the narrative is also generalized as experience of all Buddhas, and in the Vinaya, Mahavagga, 1st section (cf. Vinaya Texts [SBE xiii. (1881)], i. 73 f.). In the latter account the exposition of the doctrine is given, not as being re-discovered, but as being meditated upon after enlightenment was won, and as constituting, so to speak, the spoils of victory. The account as compared with the other two is referred to Gotama Buddha only, and is relatively curt, as if, when the rules of the order were being completely edited,' this doctrinally important portion was inserted with the other legends prefacing the books of rules, as a memorandum. Internal evidence is thus rather against its being the oldest version.

re-discovery as in the Samyutta narrative, are: The two links in question, taking the order of Conditioned-by-consciousness, actions. Condi

not be an addendum for the sake of completeness. Theravada exegesis sees in them a linking up with the previous life or lives of the sentient subject, just as, at the other end, the next life is outlined by the other two extremes. We thus get: (ignorance actions (transmitting re

(This is the formula of ten 'bases' only, and in backward order, or the order of re-discovery, as given in this ancient legend or creed, the thinker pushing his way from consequent to anteThen to the Bodhisat this occurred: "Consciousness turns

cedent.)

back from the composite organism; it goes not beyond it."" (In other words, we encounter, in sentience, no new fact to adduce. As a man's composite organism-mind and bodydissolves at death, the resultant consciousness of his last mental force springs up in a new embryo, human, bestial, infernal, or celestial. And the result of that embryo so informed is a composite organism, or nama-rupa. Hence the mutual conditioning of these two terms, as in the case of seedfruit-seed, egg-hen-egg.)

Only thus can one be born, grow old, die, fall (from one sphere), spring up (in another), namely, conditioned-bycomposite organism, consciousness. Conditioned-by-consciousness, composite organism. Conditioned by composite organism, sense. Conditioned-by-sense, contact. Conditionedby-contact, feeling. Conditioned-by-feeling, natural desire. Conditioned-by-natural-desire, attachment. Conditioned-byattachment, becoming. Conditioned by becoming, birth. Conditioned-by-birth, decay-and-dying, with sorrow and suffering. Such is the coming to be of this entire body of ill."'

"Coming to be! coming to be! (samudayo)" at that thought there arose to the Bodhisat a vision into things not called before to mind, and knowledge arose, and insight and wisdom and light. Then to him it occurred: "What now being absent, is decay-and-dying also absent; by the ceasing of what does decay-and-dying also cease?" Then to him thinking as to means arose penetration of insight: "Where birth is absent, decay-and-dying is absent; when birth ceases, decay-anddying ceases. . . . Where becoming, etc., . [and so on to] consciousness ceases." Then to him this occurred: "Lo! I have won to this, the intuition-way to enlightenment, namely, that from the composite organism ceasing, consciousness ceases, and conversely; that from the composite organism ceasing, sense ceases. Such is the ceasing of this entire body of ill. Ceasing! Ceasing!" At that thought there arose to him a vision into things not called before to mind, and knowledge arose, and insight and wisdom and light. And thereafter he dwelt in the discernment of the rising and passing away of the five attachment groups (of the composite organism). Such is the material group, such the mental groups, such is their coming to be, such is their ceasing. And for him, abiding in that discernment, not long was it before his heart, void of attachment, was set free from the Intoxicants (of sense-desires, of renewed life, of wrong views. of ignorance).'

This is the version of the legend giving the fullest context. But it lacks the eleventh and VOL. IX.-43

Previous

life.

sults).

Present

life.

consciousness..

to. coming.

be

Future

life.

(birth (in earth or heavens, etc.) decay-anddying.

more interesting in perspective than if the past and future of the three lives had been represented as groups of terms identical with those of the present life. It was open to the compilers so to represent it. But the table as compiled shows a greater preoccupation with the working of causation than if there had been offered mere repetition. In the central group we have the working out of the process of sentience, culminating in the central links -sense, feeling, desire-and representing a fresh ebullition, a new source of causal force reaching on into the next birth. There its resultant is renewed sentience, eventually again to be darkened by the inevitable disease-decay-death. But the present is also itself a resultant-a centre of effects in sentience due to causes in the past. Simplifying that past, the compilers presented it in abstract as causal only. The causes are generalized as two: the limited and imperfect knowledge which is called ignorance (a-vijjā)—ignorance of how the life of sense-desires makes in the long run for dukkha, ill'; and activities of deed, word, and thought, conditioned by that ignorance, and constituting the karma-forces which result in the sentient effects of the next (i.e. the present) life.

It is very necessary for the reader to keep in mind this view of the two past-life terms as a simplified, abstract aspect. Western critics, ignoring the Theravada tradition, have speculated on how ignorance' (i.e. knowledge of a sort, just as cold is, scientifically, heat of a sort) can be the primal source (!) of these sentient phenomena.

'Ignorance,' wrote Buddhaghosa, 'is here chosen only as a starting-point for the exposition, not because it is itself causeless' (Visuddhi-Magga, xvii.).

Another difficulty, met by the commentators, is the distinction between 'becoming' (bhava) and birth.' They explain becoming under two aspects: (a) when it conditions birth, the fruition or results of past actions is meant (kammabhava); (b) in the phrase, 'becoming is conditioned by