of S. America, Hereford, 1774; C. R. Gallardo, Los Onas, Buenos Aires, 1911; A. F. Gardiner, A Visit to the Indians on the Frontiers of Chili, London, 1841; S. H. Lafone Quevedo, Etnologia Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1909; F. P. Moreno, Viage á la Patagonia Austral, do. 1879; A. d'Orbigny, Voyages dans les deux Amériques, Paris, 1836; F. F. Outes, Los Querandies, Buenos Aires, 1897; A. d'Ovalle, Historica relatione del Regno di Cile, Rome, 1646 (Eng. tr. in J. Pinkerton, Collection of Voyages, etc., London, 1808-14, xiv.); A. Pigafetta, Primo viaggio intorno al globo sulla squadra del capit. Magaglianes, 1519-22, Milan, 1800 (Eng. tr. in Pinkerton, xi.). τὸ καλὸν πᾶν. the more probable origin of the term is to be sought in the Panchālā tribe. Panchals are found in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies and in the Mysore State. In Madras they are more commonly known as Kammālans. The numbers given in census enumerations are quite unreliable, as members of the Panchala community frequently describe themselves as belonging to one of the five castes mentioned above, W. B. GRUBb. PANCALISM. 'Pancalism' is the name instead of using the name Panchala. The origin recently given to a point of view which goes back of the term is a matter of much speculation. Pånto Aristotle, from which the aesthetic mode of being have some support for this claim in the rights and chalas lay claim to the status of Brahmans, and real, apprehended in the contemplation of the beautiful, is all-comprehensive and absolute.' The at all easy to decide whether a gild of artisans, privileges which they commonly possess. It is not word 'pancalism' summarizes the Greek motto working in the five materials, gold, iron, copper, Aristotle held that the true and the good, the wood, and stone, has in the past raised itself to supreme idea and the summum bonum, were united Brahmans, having taken to work in these materials, Brahmanic status, or whether, on the other hand, in the divine contemplation of the universe as a work of art. Kant found in the 'judgment of contrary to the laws of Manu, have become an taste' (Urtheilskraft) a function by which the tion. The fact that the skill required for workartisan caste while retaining their superior posilimitations of theoretical and practical reason were ing in metal, wood, or stone does not vary much overcome in an intuition of harmony between nature, the world of truth, and freedom, the world would explain to some extent both an affinity beof ends and values. Schelling explicitly taught the fact that a caste, abandoning literary pursuits tween castes working in the different materials and that rationalism, founded on intellect, and voluntar- for the handicrafts, could adopt all these methods of ism, founded on will, reached their synthesis in earning a living. It is on the whole more probæstheticism, founded upon the activities and pro-able that the caste had its origin in a Brahmanic ducts of fine art (cf. Baldwin, Genetic Theory of group becoming artisans than in an industrial gild Reality, New York and London, 1915, ch. ix. § 4, rising to the dignity of Brahmanic rights and and ch. xiii. ff., from which both the term pancal- privileges. Indeed, the case seems to be a survival determined by occupation and became hereditary. from the period in India when status ceased to be The wealthy position of workers in precious metals may very probably have assisted the Panchals to uphold their claims to Brahmanic status for a long period in face of the strong opposition evinced towards them by Brahmans of a more orthodox callthe Peshwas, who did not deny to Sonars the right ing. This was notably the case during the rule of to style themselves Daivadnya Brahmans. ism' and the definition given above are taken). The detailed working out of the pancalistic point of view has awaited the modern researches in affective logic and the theory of the artistic imagination, the former due primarily to T. Ribot and the latter to T. Lipps. In view of the former, the experiences upon which the 'love' of Plato and the ecstasy of the Italian and German mystics rested have been taken out of the domain of mere individual feeling and given valid epistemological force. Feeling finds in the artistic or semblant imagination its instrument as organ of a genuine appreciation of the real. And in the outcome, in the work of art, the demand of the reason for the true and that of practice and morals for the good alike find their satisfaction in a synthesis of the self and its object -as intimated speculatively by each of the three thinkers Aristotle, Kant, and Schelling. In such a view a third alternative takes an articulate form in modern philosophy. Feeling, so long despised by intellectualists and voluntarists alike, attains its true dignity as an organ of the apprehension of reality. The raptures of mysticism are explained and the claims of intuitionism are justified in the reasonable conclusions of the philosophy of art. LITERATURE.-In addition to the citations made above see R. Adamson, The Development of Modern Philosophy, Edinburgh, 1903, i. 266 f.; A. T. Ormond, The Foundations of Knowledge, London and New York, 1900, pt. ii. p. 227 ff.; J. Mark Baldwin, Thought and Things, London, 1911, vol. iii. ch. xv.; W. D. Furry, The Aesthetic Experience, Ealtimore, 1908; W. M. Urban, Journ. of Philosophy, xiii. [1916] 356 ff.; E. L. Schaub, Philos. Review, xxiv. [1916] 639; E. L. Hinman, IJE xxvi. [1916] 564 ff. J. MARK BALDWIN. PANCHĀLA. Panchala is a term used in India to describe a group of five castes of artisans, formerly more closely connected with each other than they now are. According to J. T. Moles worth and G. and T. Candy, Mahratti-English Dictionary (Bombay, 1857), Panchal is a common term for five castes: Sonar (goldsmith), Sutar (carpenter), Lohar (blacksmith), Kansar (coppersmith), and Patharvat (stone-mason). The popular derivation of the term is panch, five,' and al, to melt,' because Panchals are said to melt the five metals-gold, silver, copper, brass, and zine; but | Care is necessary to distinguish between Panchals properly so described and the distinct castes of Sonars, Sutars, Lohars, Kansars, and Patharvats, which in many cases have established a Pānchāla subdivision and show a tendency to adopt the traditions of the Panchala caste. They are entirely different in origin, and this is made clear by their remaining as five distinct endogamous groups, not possessing the close resemblance of Panchals to Brahmans in rites and appearance. Panchals proper usually intermarry freely; but Thurston that in certain towns the Sonar section no longer Castes and Tribes of S. India, iii. 108) mentions marry willingly with Lohars. The Panchala caste has five gotras, or exogamous divisions, known as (1) Suparna Daivadnya, (2) Ababhuwana Tvaśta, (3) Prasthana Silpi, (4) Sanag Manuva, and (5) Sanatan Maya. These names are connected, as shown, with the five sons of Viśvakarma, the divine architect, i.e. Daivadnya, Tvasta, Silpi, Manuva, and Maya. Panchals have the Brahmanic sanskars, or sacraments, and perform their ceremonies according to the Vedic ritual. Frequent attempts were made in the days preceding British rule to deny them the right to these Brahmanic privileges; but the decision of the pandits, or religious advisers, when referred to, was in their favour. They are followers of both Siva and Visnu, and are even found wearing the lingam of the Lingayats (q.v.). They have their own priests and do not call in Brahmans to perform their religious ceremonies. They will not eat food cooked by Brahmans, of whom they consider themselves at least the equals. LITERATURE.-BG xv. [1883], xx. [1884], xxi. [1884], xxii. [1884], xxiii. [1884], xxiv. [1886]; Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, new ser., i. [1869], iii. [1871]; A. Steele, PANCHPIRIYĀ. — 1. Introductory. - Panchpiriya is a term applied to the worship of the Panchon Pir, or five saints-a form of belief very common among the lower Hindu castes in W. Bengal, the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, and E. Panjab. It seems to be a combination of various forms of animism characteristic of the lower strata of the population and Muhammadan saint-worship. The Panch or Panj Pir, the five saints' of Islam, are, properly speaking, the five great saints of the Shi'ah sect-the Prophet Muhammad; his daughter Fatimah; 'Ali her husband, cousingerman and adopted son of the Prophet; and their sons, Hasan and Husain, the two martyrs whose pitiful death is celebrated yearly by members of the Shiah sect during the first ten days of the Muharram festival (DI, p. 407 ff.). But this orthodox cult has little connexion with the Panchpiriya beliefs, in which each worshipper or group of worshippers selects, according to individual taste, the saints whom he prefers as objects of reverence. Thus in the Panjab the quintette sometimes consists of the saints Khwajah Quṭbud-din, Khwajah Mu'in-ud-din Chishti of Ajmer (q.v.), Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Auliya of Delhi, Naşir-ud-din Abu'l-khair, and Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. A second list gives their names: Baha'-ud-din Zakariya of Multan, Shah Ruqa-i'alam Hazrat of Lucknow, Shah Shams-i-Tabriz of Multan, Shaikh Jalāl Makhdūm Jahāniya Jahangasht of Uchcha, and Bābā Shaikh Farid-ud-din Shakarganj of Pakpatan. In the United Provinces the group usually includes worthies of a much lower rank, one list giving Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Bhairon, Buahna, and Bandē, Amina being a sati, or faithful wife who died on the pyre of her husband, and the three last deified worthies or malignant spirits propitiated by the lowest classes. Here, as in W. Bengal, the enumeration varies from district to district, according to the tastes of the worshippers or the local cults which have been absorbed into this form of worship. Practically all the lists in the United Provinces and Bengal are headed by Ghazi Miyan, who has some pretensions to be regarded as a historical personage. His history is found in the Mirat-iMasudi, of which an abstract has been given by J. Dowson (H. M. Elliot, Hist. of India, London, 1869, ii. 513 ff.; cf. NINQ ii. 109). Dowson calls the book a historical romance. In it fact and fiction are freely mingled, and the great actions and exploits of other men are appropriated, without scruple, to the hero of the tale. The conqueror, Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997 or 9981030), it is said, learning of an attack by the Hindu infidels on a division of his forces, sent his nephew, Sâlar Sahu, in command of a force to relieve them. After waging successful war upon the infidels, he was finally slain near Bahraich in Oudh (A.D. 1034). It is one of the curious aspects of popular Hinduism that a Musalman martyr, who waged unceasing war against Hindus and destroyed their temples, should become the head of a quintette of saints widely venerated by the lower orders of Hindus. Wise, remarking that in E. Bengal the guru, or spiritual preceptor, of the sect is the mahant, or provost, of the Nanakshāhi or Sikh order of devotees, suggests that the origin of the Panchpiriya beliefs may be traced to Nanak (q.v.), the famous Sikh guru. Nanak 'taught universal toleration, and insisted that not only were the essential doctrines of Hinduism and Muhammadanism analogous, but that the Supreme Being, adored as either Hari [Visnu] or Allah, was sought after by the devout of both creeds. It was natural that in such a tolerant sect eclectic teachers should spring up, selecting from the ritual of each religion whatever was likely to recommend itself to the vacillation of either party' (Notes on the Races, Castes, and Trades of E. Bengal, p. 18 f.). There seems, however, to be little ground for associating the growth of the Panchpiriya beliefs with the rise of Sikhism, because it prevails widely in parts of the country where Sikh influence is altogether wanting. It also seems probable that the cult was older than Sikhism itself. It is more reasonable to suppose that it supplies one of Hinduism, particularly in its lower strata, where many examples of the eclectic character of popular sonation of the divine energy from which he hopes the worshipper is prepared to venerate any imperto obtain a favour, or by the neglect of which he imagines that he may be exposed to malign influences. In this spirit lower class Hindus will visit the tombs of Musalman saints or even make offer ings at the graves of Europeans, in the former case believing that the vicinity of the grave of the holy man exhales an influence which will be beneficial to them, in the latter dreading that the angry ghost of the powerful stranger, if not duly propitiated, may do them injury. forth. or It does not seem necessary to connect the cult with that of the five Pandava heroes of the Mahabharata epic in a special way, as some writers have suggested. In fact, in Hindu belief five is a perfect, holy number. Hence comes the respect paid to the panchayat, or the body which should properly consist of five arbitrators assessors, the tribal or caste council of the group or locality, which deals with social affairs, such as marriage, divorce, violations of caste rules, and so Panch jahan Paramesvar, Where five agree, 'tis God's decree,' is a common proverb which expresses popular feeling. In the same way there are five great gods worshipped by the orthodox Hindus. The offerings presented to the gods are usually five or some multiple of that number; five unmarried girls or five married women whose husbands are alive bring good luck to the marriage rites, and so on. At the same timethe cult of the five Pandava heroes extends from the Himalaya to Madras, and this was possibly beliefs (PR i. 206). one of the sources contributing to the Panchpiriya The Panchpiriya beliefs, then, appear to be the result of a fusion of Hinduism and Islām, and had impressed upon the minds of the lower classes. probably arose after the Muhammadan conquest of Hindus the assurance that the saints worshipped by the newcomers must be powerful personages to whom the success of the invaders might reasonably be attributed. With these saints were naturally associated some of the myriad local deities and malign spirits which the menial classes of Hindus habitually worship. The result was the extraordinary amalgam of divine personages and dangerous spirits which we find in the various lists. 2. Local types of the cult.-(a) Bengal.-In W. Bengal the five saints' form one of the main objects of adoration, not only of Muhammadans, but also of Hindus of the lower grades. They are often worshipped as family deities, being represented by a small mound on a clay plinth erected in the north-west corner of one of the rooms of the house. On this is fixed a piece of iron, resembling in its shape the human hand, each finger symboliz ing one of the quintette, with a piece of yellow cloth bound where the wrist should be. 'Every Wednesday the mound is washed, incense is burned On special before it and offerings of flowers are made. occasions sacrifices are offered, either of goats or cocks. Where the votary is a Hindu he often engages a Dafáli [one of the drummer caste] Fakir to perform the ceremony on his behalf. The Panchpiriyá Hindus eat the flesh of goats killed by Muhammadan butchers in accordance with the forms prescribed by their religion and will not touch the flesh of animals which have been sacrificed before a Hindu god. They do not, how ever, neglect the worship of Hindu deities' (E. A. Gait, Census of India, 1901, vi., Bengal Report, pt. i. p. 185 f.). (b) United Provinces and Panjab.-Here the worship centres round Ghāzi Miyān. It is significant that in the popular accounts of his martyrdom there are references to his desire to rest on a spot in the battle-field where there was an image of the sun, much venerated by Hindus. Tradition asserts that, when he was buried, his head rested on this image, the worship of which he had devoted his life to destroy. The natural inference is that the cult succeeded to, or was possibly based on, that of some local solar deity. His special feast, again, is known as 'the marriage' (byāh) of the hero. He may thus be regarded as one of the class of divine youths, snatched away from life at the height of their strength and beauty, like Dulha Deo, the deified bridegroom of the forest tribes of Central India, and his 'marriage' may be one of a group of mimetic magical observances intended to promote fertility. The scene of his death is traditionally fixed at Satrikh in the Barabanki District of Oudh. Here in the month of March a large annual fair is held in his honour, and similar observances take place at other localities such as Gorakhpur and Bhadohi in the Mirzapur District of the United Provinces, where cenotaphs have been erected. At his festivals a long spear or pole, crowned at the top with bushy hair, representing the head of the martyr, which, it is said, kept rolling on the ground long after it was severed from his body, is carried in procession. In the eyes of orthodox Muhammadans the observances naturally savour of idolatry. Sikandar Lodi (A.D. 1489-1510) prohibited the practice, and the Maulavis, or orthodox Muhammadan teachers, in the Panjab at the present day discourage it. But the cult satisfies the animistic tendencies of the lower classes, both Hindu and Musalman, and shows no sign of disappearance. LITERATURE.-J. Wise, Notes on the Races, Castes, and Trades of E. Bengal, London, 1883, p. 17 ff.; W. Crooke, PR ii. 205 ff.; E. A. Gait, Census of India, 1901, vi., Bengal Report, pt. i. pp. 180, 185; E. D. Maclagan, Census of India, 1891, Panjab Report, pt. i. p. 198; Pandit Harikishan Kaul, Census of India, 1911, Panjab Report, pt. i. p. 123. For the local legends of Ghazi Miyan see Oudh Gazetteer, Lucknow, 1877, i. 111 ff.; W. H. Sleeman, A Journey through Oudh, London, 1858, i. 48. The Panchpiriya ballads have been collected by R. Greeven, NINQ ii. [1892], reprinted in The Heroes Five, Allahābād, 1898. For the worship of Muhammadan saints in N. India see R. Temple, The Legends of the Panjab, Bombay, 1884-86; NINQ ii. 109, iii. [1893] 56, 185, v. [1895] 129. For the worship of Balmik see Census of India, 1911, Panjab Report, pt. i. p. 131 ff. W. CROOKE. 'Pantheism and Pankosmism are but the ideal and real sides of the same thought. The pantheist is a metaphysician, the pankosmist a physicist' (A. M. Fairbairn, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History, London, 1876, p. 392). In its strict acceptation, then, pancosmism asserts that the order of the universe is a self-sustained, selfacting arrangement, and that, in particular, no trace of purpose, such as the fact of consciousness would seem to indicate, is discernible. Thus, not merely are metaphysical problems extruded, but a specific solution of them is assumed dogmatically or uncritically. On this basis experience is to be explained' by reference to the veritable reality of extra-mental existences,' which, in turn, are to be treated after the manner necessitated by the practical requirements of natural scientific generalization. The theory exemplifies a recurrent logical error, a common mark of unphilosophical thinking always, but especially in periods of reaction against dominant theological or 'spiritual' doctrines. Briefly, second intentions are either mistaken for or employed as if they were first intentions. That is to say, conceptual results of reflective thought are taken, prima facie, as direct percepts. Phrases like the universe' and 'natural law' (e.g., Haeckel's 'law of substance') belong distinctively to mind. Any object' indicated by them is in mind. But, according to pancosmism, such objects' precisely are out of all relation to mind. This fallacy is one among many consequences of a tendency rendered familiar by the premature generalizations of 'modern thought' so called, particularly on the biological side; for the vagueness inseparable from the sciences of organic nature rather than the mathematical exactness of the sciences of physical nature has favoured philosophical delusion. It originates in forgetfulness that the business of science is to offer descriptions of particular things-things whose existence is conditional upon the existence of other things. Thus, laws of nature' do not refer to nature as a whole, but to separate parts of it. To extend them to the universe' in its totality is quite unwarrantable. Much more is it unwarrantable to transfer descriptions of things, no matter what their cogency or accuracy, to the sphere of the ultimate and necessary7—a main vice of pancosmism and allied theories. For this reason, then, the pancosmist hypothesis has failed to recommend itself to serious thinkers. As history shows, it is associated with deductions drawn from empirical observation, or presumed to be so drawn. These, in turn, when tinctured with the mysticism or even poetry which, by a curious paradox, seems to be compatible with materialism (q.v.), come to do duty as a theory of reality. Evidence, itself in need of thorough criti cism, is treated as if it guaranteed an ultimate ex categories of space and time, in their relation to the category of change particularly, would serve to bare the vicious procedure at once. PANCOSMISM (Tây, neut. of was, 'the whole,' 'all'+xóoμos, the universe in its order or arrangement). This term is of rare occurrence, becauseplanation of the universe. Critical analysis of the the theory denoted by it has seldom been held in the strict acceptation by any competent philosophical thinker; Czolbe (1819-73), in his first period, was a notable exception. It means that all being LITERATURE. See the bibliographies under MATERIALISM, or reality consists exclusively of the physical uni- MONISM, and PANTHEISM. References to pancosmism in philoverse existing under the conditions of space and sophical literature are few and only sporadic. The best discustime. As a rule, the view has been confused with Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, London, 1915. See also sion of theories allied temperamentally with pancosmism is J. one or other of the protean forms of pantheism (q.v.). H. Czolbe, Neue Darstellung des Sensualismus, Leipzig, 1855, Now, when examined closely, pantheism, considered Die Entstehung des Selbstbewusstseins, do. 1856; E. Montgomery, 'Is Pantheism the Legitimate Outcome of Modern metaphysically, presents but two legitimate standScience?' Journ. of Spec. Philosophy, xix. [1885] 352 f.; C. W. points. On the one hand, by participation, all C. Naden, Induction and Deduction, London, 1890, p. 155 f.; phenomena in the universe share the nature of the A. Seth, Man's Place in the Cosmos, do. 1897, p. 72 f.; W. absolute substance and, to the extent of this par- p. 70 ff., Eng. tr. Natural Philosophy, New York, 1910, p. 18 ff.; Ostwald, Vorlesungen über Naturphilosophies, Leipzig, 1905, ticipation (which may be matter of degree), are A. E. Taylor, Elements of Metaphysics, London, 1903, pp. 216 ff., real. On the other hand, the phenomena are transi- 279 ff.; W. P. Montague, Consciousness a Form of Energy,' tory forms or appearances of the absolute substance in Essays Philosophical and Psychological in Honor of William and thus, in effect, illusions. Whether the doctrine Thought in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1912, vol. iii. ch. James, New York, 1908; J. T. Merz, A Hist. of European of metexis or that of mimesis be accepted, the meta-vi.; R. W. Sellars, Critical Realism, Chicago, 1916. physical problem of immanency presents itself. On the contrary, pancosmism implies the ejection of all metaphysical questions-there is no room for a transcendental factor. R. M. WENLEY. PANDHARPUR. - Pandharpur is a famous religious town and place of pilgrimage in the Sholapur District of the Bombay Presidency, situated on the right bank of the river Bhima, a tributary of the Kistna; lat. 17° 41′ N., long. 75° 26' E. The place derives its name from the cult of a deity now regarded as a form of Visnu, variously called Pandurang, Pandhari, Vitthal, Vitthalnath, and Vithoba, whose noted temple near the centre of the holy part of the town is held in great reverence by Brahmans. Kanarese.' Vithoba, according to Pandit Bhagvanlâl Indraji (BG xx. 423), 'is a short form of Vithṭhal bava, that is "Father" or "Dear" Viththal; Viththal does not appear to be a Sanskrit name, nor, though several attempts have been made, can the word be correctly traced to any Sanskrit root. The name is probably Others explain it to mean 'standing on a brick,' from the position of the image of the god (J. M. Mitchell, Hinduism Past and Present, p. 169; M. A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, vi. 23). It is more probable that the name is a corruption of Visnupati, lord Visnu,' through the local form Bistu or Bittu. The present name Pandurang, usually interpreted to meanwhite-coloured,' is more probably a Sanskritized form of Pandaraga, 'belonging to Pandarge'-the old name of the place. From these facts Vithoba seems to be a local deity admitted into Hinduism as a form of Visnu. The date of the erection of the original temple, which has been repeatedly restored and extended, is unknown. It seems to have been erected under the Yadava dynasty of Devgiri, and to have been destroyed by the Muhammadans, as several figures are wilfully destroyed. According to local tradition, the image was several times removed to save it from desecration at the hands of the Muhammadans. It is about 3 ft. 9 ins. in height, and together with the base seems to be cut out of a single block of trap rock. It stands with arms akimbo and hands resting upon the hips, the left hand holding a conch-shell and the right a discus, the emblems of Visnu. No other Vaisnava temple in India seems to possess a similar image. It is served by a colony of Deşaşth Brahmans, including priests (badva), ministrants, choristers, bathmen, singers, barbers, mace-bearers, and lamp-lighters. The service is performed five times during each day and night. About 3 a.m. a priest humbly begs the god to wake; the door is opened, the food placed in the bed-chamber on the previous day is removed, and butter and sugar-candy are laid before the god. A torch made of muslin soaked in butter is waved before him from head to foot. Many votaries come to behold the god at this time. After this he is again fed, butter and sugar being placed in his mouth. Lights perfumed with camphor are again waved, the faded garlands are removed, and the feet of the image are washed first in milk and then in water. The service proper (puja) then begins. The image is unrobed and bathed, a sheet being held before the door while he is naked. After his path he is wiped dry and dressed in new robes. His face is wiped and rubbed with scented oil until it shines. A turban is bound round his head and garlands of flowers are hung on his neck, while the barber holds a mirror before him. His feet are washed and rubbed with sandal; sandal paste is applied to his brow. After the morning service, about 3 p.m., the god is again dressed; the ministrant bathes and adorns him. PANGENESIS.-The theory of pangenesis, though to some extent foreshadowed in the writings of Buffon, Spencer, and others, was originally put forward by Charles Darwin in 1867. By means of it he sought to connect together many different classes of biological facts with which his studies had brought him into close contact. It was a tentative explanation of phenomena so diverse as the general process of development, the regeneration of lost parts after injury, reversion in offspring to characters present in remote ancestors, the inherited effects of the use and disuse of organs, and graft-hybrids. For these and other phenomena of life Darwin attempted a general explanation in the theory which he termed 'pangenesis.' The tissues of plants and animals are composed of small microscopical units called cells, which increase by self-division. According to Darwin, this is not the sole mode of reproduction whereby these units increase in number. He supposed that they continually throw off minute particles, or gemmules, which permeate the whole system of the individual. Under suitable con ditions these gemmules multiply by self-division and ultimately give rise to units similar to those from which they sprang. At the spot where the sexual elements are formed a special attraction is exerted on all the different kinds of gemmule from the body. Here they congregate and constitute the sexual elements. As the sexual cells themselves, especially those produced by the male, are often very small, it must be supposed that the gemmules are exceedingly minute, and quite invisible under the highest powers of the microscope. Fertilization means the union of two sets of gemmules, and subsequent development results in offspring bearing resemblances to the parents by whom these two sets were supplied. In this way is explained the general likeness between parents and offspring. A further supposition is that under certain circumstances gemmules may become dormant and remain so for many generations. Then, through unknown changes in the conditions, they may re-awaken into activity, and bring about the sudden reappearance of the character or characters to which their activities give rise. In this way is explained the phenomenon of reversion on the part of offspring to features which were found in some more or less remote ancestor. The co-ordinated aggregation of the gemmules which serves to explain the process of normal development serves also to explain the remarkable phenomenon of the regeneration of lost parts, such as occurs when a limb of the lobster is lost or the tail severed from a lizard. The appropriate gemmules congregate at the point of injury and attract others to themselves, so that a complete is eventually assembled. set necessary for the re-formation of the lost part Darwin also considered that the theory served The days specially sacred to the gods are Wednesday and Saturday, unless these fall at the conjunc-antenna in a crustacean in place of an eye, or the to explain cases such as the development of an tion of sun and moon or ominous conjunctions of planets occur. As in the case with all Vaisnavas, the 11th day of the month is a fast day. The chief fairs are in June to July and October to November, when immense crowds assemble from all parts of the Deccan and S. India. The other temples in the town are numerous, but not of special importance. LITERATURE.-This art. is mainly based on the full account of the place, the temple, and its ritual by Pandit Bhagvanlāl Indraji, in BG xx. [1884] 415 ff., and J. M. Mitchell, Hinduism Past and Present, London, 1885, p. 168 ff. On the local saint, Nandey, see M. A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, Oxford, 1909, vi. 23, 34. On the anti-Brahmanical influence of the Marhata poet Tukaram see M. M. Kunte, Vicissitudes of Aryan Civilisation in India, Bombay, 1880, pp. 464, 497. W. CROOKE. appearance of buds in unlikely places on a plant. Such teratological cases are due to the wrong gemmules having arrived first at the point of growth, and having attracted their own plement of gemmules instead of that necessary to complete the normal sequence. com Some of the phenomena which Darwin sought to explain by the theory of pangenesis have since been shown to be either of doubtful nature or susceptible of a totally different interpretation. The supposed inherited effect of the use and disuse of parts, in which Darwin believed strongly, is now generally discredited by biologists. Recent work, too, has shown that graft-hybrids are in reality made up of two distinct individuals, of which one supplies certain tissues and the other one the rest. A graft-hybrid may consist of the body of one plant covered over by the skin of another. The resultant is more or less intermediate in appearance, but the cell-tissues of the two kinds remain distinct, and the compound plant breeds true to the member of the combination that supplies the cell-layer from which the germ-cells arise. Of such phenomena the theory of pangenesis offers no explanation. body tissue in its turn, through the formation of gemmules, gave rise to sexual cells. In the sequence of the generations there was a continual alternation between somatoplasm and germ-plasm, the connecting link between them being the gemmules. The theory involved the transportation of the gemmules from the fertilized ovum to the body tissues, and again from the body tissues to the fertilized ovum. Strong objections to this hypothetical transportation of gemmules were soon From the outset Darwin's theory was subjected raised by Galton and others, and the idea was to much criticism. A few years after its promul- abandoned by Weismann and other successors of gation Galton questioned its validity on experi- Darwin. Following Weismann, most biologists mental grounds. He argued that, if representatives to-day draw a sharp distinction between germof all the various gemmules given off by the body plasm and somatoplasm. The sexual elements of an animal are collected into the sexual glands, continue to be germ-plasm after their fusion, but as the theory demands, they must travel by the from this fused germ-plasm a portion is gradually passage of the blood. Hence the blood must be set aside as development proceeds, is specialized as full of them, and they must be capable of living in the body of the new individual, and functions as the blood for some time. If, therefore, the blood the carrier and protector of the remaining and of one form were replaced by that of another, the unmodified germ-plasm. The body eventually offspring of animals with such transfused blood dies; the germ-plasm carried by it alone retains should show effects derived from the interchange the property of fusion with other germ-plasms to of gemmules. Galton accordingly made blood-repeat the sequence. After each fusion of separate transfusion experiments between silver-grey rabbits germ-plasms resulting from the union of two sexual and lops, and subsequently bred from both classes. cells a portion is sacrificed to ensure the continued In spite of the transfusion each class bred true, activity of the rest. The germ-plasm goes on from and in no case did the offspring exhibit any differ- fusion to fusion, from generation to generation, and ences that might be set down to the operation. at each generation is side-tracked a portion which These experiments of Galton are supported by the becomes somatoplasm, which drifts thenceforward case of the graft-hybrids mentioned above. A from the evolutionary current and ultimately graft-hybrid, as has already been stated, consists perishes. The case for or against pangenesis rests of a permanent fusion between individual plants largely upon what is termed the inheritance of which may belong to different allied species, as, acquired' characters, upon whether changes in e.g., between the tomato and the common weed the somatoplasm induced by changed conditions Solanum nigrum. Nevertheless experiment has can be transmitted to the next generation through shown that the offspring of such compound plants the medium of the germ-plasm. Darwin believed belong entirely to one of the two forms of which in such inheritance; Weismann did not. As time the plant is made up. If the doctrine of pan-has gone on, the evidence has become more and more genesis were true, and the gemmules of both forms in favour of Weismann and consequently against were collected together in the sexual tissues, some the view of the relation between somatoplasm and effect would undoubtedly be looked for in the germ-plasm which the theory of pangenesis implies. offspring. That no effect is produced certainly On the other hand, it is becoming more and more tells against the doctrine. apparent that any explanation of the phenomena of heredity demands the conception of small particles whose presence in or absence from the germplasm decides the characters of the somatoplasm that arises from the germ-plasm (cf. art. HEREDITY). To this extent the theory of pangenesis contains an element of truth. Nor does pangenesis receive any support from what is now known of cell-division. The science of cytology, largely concerned with the characters, origin, and growth of cells, has been revolutionized since Darwin wrote, and the ascertained phenomena lend no support to the view that new cells arise in any way other than by division of pre-existing cells. LITERATURE.-H. Spencer, Principles of Biology, London, 1864; C. Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants under genesis,' PRS, 1871; A. Weismann, The Germ-Plasm, tr. Domestication, do. 1868; F. Galton, Experiments in PanW. N. Parker and H. Rönnfeldt, London, 1893; E. Baur, EinR. C. PUNNETT. PANJAB AND NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.-1. Pre-historical creeds.It is difficult to say what the primitive religion of the Panjab or north-west corner of India must have been, but easy to conjecture its general outlines. It was doubtless a form of nature-worship, combined with magic, whose object was to attain power over the material universe generally and in and destroy enemies or at least secure immunity particular to get children, ensure good harvests, from their onslaughts. A type of this primitive religion may have long survived the Vedic period in the Bon chos, or religion of the Tibetan Bonpos. The Bon chos was also called Lha chos, or 'spiritcult,' and in the gLing chos of Ladakh we have probably the earliest type of it.1 Whatever its shortcomings, the theory of pangenesis probably contains one essential truth. The conception that the various characters ex-führung in die experimentelle Vererbungslehre, Berlin, 1911. hibited by plant or animal depend for their manifestation upon definite units which are transferred unchanged from generation to generation is a conception which has been borne out by recent experimental work (see art. HEREDITY). It is a conception, too, which has formed an integral part of the more important theories of inheritance that have been put forward since Darwin's time, and to this extent pangenesis may be said to have formed the basis of modern heredity. In one respect, however, Darwin's theory differs fundamentally from those which succeeded it, viz. in the conception of the manner in which the somatoplasm is related to the germ-plasm. For Darwin there was no very sharp distinction between the two. At an early stage in development the sexual cells were non-existent as such, but were represented by innumerable gemmules scattered throughout the body. As development proceeded, representative gemmules from the various tissues became aggregated together in the sexual gland, ultimately giving rise to the reproductive tissue or germplasm. Sexual cells gave rise to body tissue and The gods of the Bon religion were those of the red meadow (the earth), of the sun, of heaven, King Kesar and his mother Gog bzang lhamo. But 1 A. H. Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet, Calcutta, 1914, p. 21; cf. art. gLING CHOS, vol. viii. p. 75. 2 Francke, pp. 2, 65. |