wave, the effect of which is not yet spent. The best collections are Hymns Ancient and Modern, English Hymnal, and Scottish Hymnary.

LITERATURE.-J. Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology2, London, 1907; W. G. Horder, The Hymn Lover, do. 1889; J. Brownlie, Hymns and Hymn Writers, do. 1899; J. Heywood, Church Hymnody, do. 1881; R. E. Welsh and F. G. Edwards, Romance of Psalter and Hymnal, do. 1889; A. Riley, 'Concerning Hymn Tunes and Sequences' (Church Music Society Papers, 4 and 5), do. 1915; W. S. Pratt, Musical Ministries, New York, 1901; J. T. Lightwood, Hymn Tunes and their Story, London, 1914; W. Cowan and J. Love, Music of Scottish Hymnary, do. 1901; historical ed. of Hymns Ancient and Modern (literary introd.).

X. THE CHURCH CANTATA.-By the word 'cantata' was originally meant anything that was sung, as the word 'sonata' meant a piece that was sounded or played. The modern cantata differs from the oratorio only in its exclusion of the dramatic and epic elements-e.g., the soloists do not represent certain personages-and it is usually not laid out on so large a scale. The Church cantata is practically analogous to the modern anthem, but it is usually on a more extended scale and generally given orchestral accompaniments. Handel's 12 fine Chandos anthems, written (1718-20) while he was estate of Cannons near Edgware, are really Church acting as chapel-master and organist at the princely cantatas. The 6th Chandos anthem, e.g., contains four solos and four choruses, the opening one of which is built up on the English Psalm tune, St. Anne. Handel manages to incorporate something of the unique style of English cathedral music as instanced in the works of his great predecessor,

Purcell.

The daily musical service at Cannons was 'performed by a choir of voices and instruments superior in numbers and excellence to that of any sovereign prince in Europe' (Handel [Great Musician Series], p. 63 f.).

The Church cantata as defined seems to have first developed in Germany, flourishing especially in the time preceding Bach. Cantatas were written for the great festivals of the Church in accordance with the Christian year and for festal occasions. D. Buxtehude, G. P. Telemann, and Bach's uncles, Michael and Johann Christoph, wrote specimens before Bach himself wrote his 295 Church cantatas, of which 198 have survived. The German chorale is particularly identified with these cantatas, and they usually comprise a chorus, founded on a chorale which is repeated by itself, with recitatives, arias, and duets. They were usually written for four voices and full orchestra, and comprised from four to seven movements, the text being verses from

the Bible and chorales.

In the Advent cantata 'Sleepers, wake' (written 1742), the opening chorus is built up on the fine stately chorale Wake, awake' (employed also by Mendelssohn in 'St. Paul'): the second verse is sung as a separate movement (later with elaborate accompaniment), and the third verse in four parts concludes the cantata; two recitatives and two duets complete the whole. The orchestra parts are for strings, two oboes, and organ.

These beautiful works are only recently becoming known in this country. No doubt they will yet earn full recognition in Britain and America.

English composers have also made a special feature of the Church cantata. The following are the most representative cantatas for the special festivals of the Christian year.

ADVENT 'Sleepers, wake,' and 'God's Time' (Bach); 'The

Two Advents' (Garrett); Voces clamantium' (termed a motet) (Parry); Advent Hymn' (Schumann). CHRISTMAS-The Holy Child (Adams); The Story of Bethlehem' (West); Christmas Eve' (Gade); one of the six portions of Bach's 'Christmas Oratorio.' CHRIST'S CRUCIFIXION "The Last Night in Bethany' (Lee Williams); Watch ye' (Bach); Olivet to Calvary (Maunder); Stabat Mater' (Dvorák and Stanford). EASTER—' Christ lay’' (Bach); The Transfiguration (Cowen). WHITSUNTIDE God so loved' (Bach); Veni Creator' (Mackenzie); Light of Life' (Elgar); The Story of Bethany

(Edwards).

་

CHRIST'S ASCENSION- Ascensiontide' (Coward); 'God goeth up' (Bach); 'The Ascension' (Steane). HARVEST Lauda Sion' (Mendelssohn); Jubilee Cantata ' (Weber); Harvest cantatas by Garrett, Lee Williams, West, and Maunder.

GENERAL-13th, 42nd, and 95th Psalms (Mendelssohn); 13th Psalm (Liszt); 'God, thou art great' (Spohr); 'Rebekah' and 'The Lord is King' (Barnby); 'Daughter of Jairus,' St. Mary Magdalene,' etc. (Stainer). LITERATURE.-Grove, 8.v. Kirchen Cantaten'; G. W. Stewart, Music in the Church, Bach's Cantatas'; E. O. Prout, Some Notes on Bach's Church Cantatas, London, 1907.

XI. ORATORIO.-It will be easily understood that Passion music is bound up with the early oratorio. The early miracle-plays and renderings Commedia Spirituale were performed in Italy in of Passion music inevitably suggested the oratorio. 1243 and 1298, and Geistliche Schauspiele became common in Germany about 1322.

The term 'oratorio' originated in Rome, where St. Philippo Neri († 1595) gave Azioni Sacri' in the the first portion; the second consisted of a dramaoratory adjoining the church. The sermon occupied tized story from Scripture written in verse and set to simple music as chorus and solo by the chapelmusic, was a contemporary, and also lived in Rome, master Animuccia. It will be remembered that Vittoria, the composer of more advanced Passion In 1600 the sacred drama, 'L'Anima ed il Corpo,' Other similar works followed, and these, together was produced by Emilio del Cavaliere in Rome. with the still interesting oratorios of G. Carissimi and chorus) and the works of Alessandro Scarlatti (1604-74) (with their advanced type of recitative (1693 and 1705) (who employed the old Church style), all prepared the way for the masterly works of Handel.

Handel in his youth wrote an oratorio in the dramatic Passion style while at Hamburg in 1704, and in the Italian manner at Rome in 1708, but not till 1720-when he composed his first English oratorio 'Esther'-does he reach a position of supremacy. His immortal Messiah' was written in 1742, and performed in Dublin; the others which still claim the affections of the public are Judas Maccabæus," Samson,'Israel in Egypt,' Solomon,' and 'Jephthah,' his last work, written when blindlike a cathedral combining science, symmetry, and ness was approaching. His mighty choruses, built artistic truth, and the telling and direct solos, which in their characterization go straight to the heart, will always appeal to lovers of good music. Inspired by Handel's success, Haydn wrote his 'Creation,' though in a very different style-in fact, in the language of the orchestra rather than the voiceand it was produced in 1798. Since then a succession of fine works in different styles has been presented in Spohr's 'Last Judgment,' Mendelssohn's St. Paul and Elijah,' Brahms' 'German Requiem,' Sullivan's Prodigal Son,' Mackenzie's 'Rose of Sharon,' and Elgar's 'Vision of Gerontius.'

LITERATURE.-For the study of the subject generally refer to A. W. Paterson, Story of Oratorio, London, 1902; Grove, 8.vv. Oratorio, Passion Music,' etc.; G. P. Upton, The Standard London, 1901; F. L. Ritter, Music in America, do. 1884; Oratorios, Chicago, 1886; A. Mees, Choirs and Choral Music,

Introduction to Bach's Matthew Passion, ed. Novello; E. O.

Prout, Some Notes on Bach's Church Cantatas; Handel (Great Musician Series), do. 1890; A. Schweizer, J. S. Bach, Leipzig, 1908, tr. E. Newman, London, 1911; A. W. Pollard, English Miracle Plays, Oxford, 1890; Stewart, Music in the Church, s.v.

XII. THE Modern concertized MASS.-The modern Mass is entirely different in style from the early polyphonic and unaccompanied Masses which culminated in those of Palestrina. It was, in fact, founded on Italian opera, which originated in the Florentine G. Caccini's efforts (1558-1640) to emulate the Athenian drama. A declamatory recitative, followed by the accompanied recitative, evolving later into the grand aria with all the Italian's passion for melody and display, together with the addition of simple chorus-work, provided the

material. The composers of this period wrote for both Church and opera, and the spirit of the theatre invaded the Church. The demand for melody got the better of ecclesiastical tradition. Women were admitted into the Church choirs, and the prima donna was given an opportunity to display the new florid vocalism.

But the first step in the decay of true Catholic sacred music

was the introduction into it of orchestral instruments.' Through them it assumed 'a sensuous character.' 'The virtuosity of the instruments at length called forth in the singers a similar virtuosity, and ere long the secular operatic taste penetrated into the Church. Certain portions of the sacred text, like the Christe eleison, were marked out as standing texts for operatic airs, and singers trained in the manner of the Italian

opera were brought into the Church to deliver them' (Richard Wagner, Gesammelte Schriften, Leipzig, 1871-83, ii. 335; cf. Weinmann, Hist. of Church Music).

It was natural, to some extent, that the music of the Mass should follow the style of the cantata, oratorio, and opera with their fully developed florid arias, duets, etc., complete orchestra, and declamatory chorus. Hence we find that the Masses of Haydn, Mozart (with the possible exception of the 8th and 9th), Cherubini, Beethoven, Bach (a Protestant), Verdi, and Gounod are lacking in true ecclesiastical style, and are unsuited for liturgical purposes. They are, in fact, purely in concert style. The A Mass of Schubert, however, and those of Rheinberger, Kiel, Havert, and Grell are more in accordance with ecclesiastical requirements and traditions as being free at least from theatricality. The first step towards better things was the foundation of the St. Cecilia Society in 1863, having for its aim the cultivation of plain chant, congregational singing, and polyphonic vocal music (see, however, R. W. Terry, 'Sidelights on German Art: the great Church Music Imposition,' Musical Times, Aug. 1915, and the Paris Schola Cantorium). Later followed the pope's rescript in 1903 and 1912 in favour of plain chant (see above), which, if not followed to extremes, should do much to restore the standard desired.

LITERATURE.-Weinmann, Hist. of Church Music; Dickinson, Music of the Western Church; Grove, s.v. 'Mass,' etc.; Curwen, Studies in Worship Music, ii. 71.

XIII. CONGREGATIONAL SERVICES. - 1. The people's part.-The concert element unfortunately enters largely into many of the choral settings used in the Anglican and other Episcopal Churches. The ambitious Church composer cannot or does not always repress the temptation to make a telling effect at the expense of the sanctity of the musical worship which he leads, and the same is not unknown in nonconformist and American churches, especially where the admiring congregation have delegated their own part to a professional quartette of soloists. The people, or congregation, have, or should have, a well-defined part, and that not a small one, in the conduct of divine worship.

A German lady who had lived in England is quoted by Curwen as saying, 'In our Lutheran service, the clergyman does every thing. We, the laity, remain passive; we have nothing to do but sing 2 or 3 verses, and this is done in such a dragging, lifeless and unvaried fashion that it must prove a torment to any musical ear' (Curwen, ii. 145).

The music of the Lutheran and Calvinistic Churches in Germany and throughout Europe is still unfortunately in a primitive condition. The chorales are sung sitting, and so slowly that breath must be taken every two or three notes without regard to phrasing or verbal or musical structure. The motet of the choir affords relief to what is, musically speaking, a very unsatisfactory service. In the city churches of Denmark, and throughout Scotland, Wales, and Ireland (with the exception of some churches in the Highlands or remote districts), the introduction of hymns of varied and often quick rhythm has given the services an element of brightness. In Denmark and Scotland congregational responses have also been introduced.

2. Types of service. A comparison of the musical services (ancient and modern) is most instructive. First we have the original primitive type in which the minister does everything; then Psalms or hymns are introduced for the people; next comes the discovery that the people have the right also to take part in the prayers, amens, and responses, not only in the ordinary services but also in the Communion and supplicatory services like the Anglican Litany. Meanwhile, a choir is introduced to lead the praise; the introduction of an anthem or motet proves, or may prove, of real devotional value; but here the choir may overstep its proper function, provide a musical display, and take over the portions which should belong to the congregation.

an

Take the choral Anglican service: the anthem like settings of the Te Deum,' 'Benedictus,' and other canticles in which the congregation cannot join are distinctly out of place (except as anthem), since they are the property of the congregation. In the Communion Service, again, the singing of the Creed usually makes it a choir Creed, not a Creed of the Church, or the people; in the same manner the elaborate settings of the 'Agnus Dei' and 'Gloria in excelsis' defeat their object. It is perfectly appropriate to reserve the 'Sanctus' and 'Benedictus' for the choir and priest-though the beautiful Anglican Communion Service, like the Litany, is admittedly already much too long. What has often been called the tyranny of the choir' is due to this tendency to appropriate and concertize certain portions of the service. One might say that it is due to (1) the demands of the Prayer Book, (2) musical ambition, and (3) acquiescence of musically uneducated clergy. The inevitable tendency of such things is towards a purely concertized service, as in the Roman concertized Mass, until some pope can arise and direct the attention of the clergy and Church musicians to the first principles of Christian worship.

LITERATURE.-Stewart, ch. x. 'The Congregation'; F. G. Edwards, Common Praise, London, 1887.

XIV. MUSIC OF THE EASTERN CHURCH.-The Eastern Church has been described as the Mother Christian Church. The patriarch of Constantinople at the close of the 6th cent. claimed superiority over the Christian Church. In 606, however, the supremacy was given to the bishop of Rome, and the Eastern Church ultimately separated and went on its own way. The present powerful Greek Church comprises (1) the Orthodox Church of Greece and the Greek colonies of Asia Minor and the Churches of Serbia and Bulgaria, (2) the Russian Church, and (3) the Churches of Syria, Egypt, Armenia, and Kurdistan.

1. The Greek Church. The liturgical music characteristic of the Eastern Church is somewhat primitive, sung only by priests and a male voice choir unaccompanied. The congregation have no part, and stand throughout. The liturgical melodies and choral sentences, as in the examples given in S. G. Hatherly's Byzantine Music, are primitive in both structure and tonality; they consist of short sections frequently repeated, and the tonality is vague, resembling the Gregorian modes and represented entirely by the white keys of the piano; one specimen given according to the use of the Greek Church at Constantinople shows, however, Turkish or Eastern influence in its chromatic intervals (see also 'Bryennius' and Church Modes,' in Riemann's Dictionary of Music). Like plain-song the music is unbarred and unrhythmical.

The earliest tunes employed in the Greek Church were not written; all singing except that by trained choirs was forbidden, and the tunes were handed down traditionally. St. John of Damascus arranged the hymns in use for ritual purposes and

wrote on musical theory, based on the eight Byzantine modes. After the 9th cent. few hymns were written, though fresh settings were made occasionally as the service became fixed. Among the composers of these John Cucuzeles is the best known for his settings of the Psalms and hymns (e. A.D. 1100). He also added to the signs for musical notation.

Oriental influence came through the AraboPersian school in the 14th century. The Greek theorists consider their, system similar to the Oriental.

In the usual Greek service the choir sing antiphonally, the resting section furnishing a drone or stationary bass. The vocal production is apt to be nasal. Reformers have made attacks on the notation, which is one great difficulty, different systems of neums having been used. Part-singing was sanctioned for the Greek Church at Athens in 1875-to be used on special occasions only and a new system of versification was introduced about that time. The Psalms are sung to what

are believed to be Hebrew melodies.

2. The Russian Church. As indicated, the Russian Church is a branch of the original Greek Church. Till about the year 1700 Russian Church music was traditional in origin. Neums were in use for notation as copied from the Greek servicebooks. According to A. Soubies (Histoire de la musique en Russie, Paris, 1898), the Czar Alexia brought musicians to Kieff, who executed before him choral pieces in eight, twelve, and twenty parts. In the 18th cent. a five-line plain-song notation was adopted, and part-singing became popular; the theme, however, was placed in the bass. The Psalter was paraphrased by Titow, and metrical

versions were sung.

genre

About 1750-75 reforms were introduced in the court choir, and new music in the Italian style was introduced under Bortnyansky († 1825). Not long after the decease of the latter the national movement under Balakireff exercised great influence, and new music preserving the tonality and of the old melodies was composed. Much of this is simple and massive in style, and depends upon nuance and expressive effects. The text is usually taken from the Psalms. More elaborate polyphonic settings are adopted for the Creation Hymn, the Evening Service, and other parts of the liturgy (see W. H. Frere, Notes on Russian Church Music,' Cathedral Quarterly, Christmas, 1914). In recent years non-liturgical pieces have been used in the Russian Church set in thoroughly modern style, but unaccompanied in the a capella mode. In a programme of Russian Church music performed in New York in Dec. 1914 occur the following:

Four-, five-, and ten-part 'Cherubim Songs' by Bortnyansky, Rimsky-Korsakoff, and Rachmaninoff; eight-part Easter Verses' by Smolensky; eight-part' Nunc Dimittis by Gretchaninoff; six-, seven-, and eight-part motets by Nikolsky, Tchesnokoff, Arkhangelsky, and others (Organist and Choirmaster, Jan. 1915, p. 384).

One feature of Russian choirs is their cavernous

bass voices, singing an octave below the ordinary bass, and creating a kind of organ bourdon pedal effect.

LITERATURE.-H. J. W. Tillyard, 'Greek Church Music,' in Musical Antiquary, March 1911; Curwen, ii. 44; S. G. Hatherly, Byzantine Music, London, 1892; Rebours, Traité de psaltique; J. M. Neale, Hymns of the Eastern Church, London, 1882; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the Hist. of the Eastern Church, do. 1861; A. Pougin, A Short Hist. of Russian Music, tr. L. Howard, do. 1915. A cantakion of the Faithful Departed was sung to a Kieff melody at the Gregorian Festival in St. Paul's Cathedral in June 1915 (music published by Novello). XV. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN CHURCH.-It is well known that instrumental music played an important part in both Greek and Hebrew temple rites.

1. Primitive instruments. In Greek ritual

trumpets and clarions were prominent. In the Hebrew Temple at the beginning of the Christian era the harp, lute, flute, trumpet, and drum were used as accompaniment to the Psalms and canonical hymns; yet, owing to the necessity of avoiding comparison with pagan rites, instrumental music was forbidden in the early Christian Church. Justin Martyr (103–167; Quæst. a Gent. Christian. propositarum) argues against it (C. Sayle, In Praise of Music, London, 1897, p. 52). On the other hand, Clemens Alexandrinus, also in the 2nd cent., quoting the Psalmist in favour of instrumental music, says:

If you are able to accompany your voices with the lyre or cithara, you will incur no censure' (Pad. ii. 4). St. Jerome (345-420) says:

"That which David made for the worship of God, inventing musical instruments.'

St. Augustine (354-430) likewise encourages the singing of Psalms to the lyre or psaltery' (J. A. Latrobe, The Music of the Church, London, 1831, p. 42). This regulation, or partial allowance, of instrumental music in the service of the Church seems not to have affected the Eastern branch, since in the Greek Church instrumental accompaniment has never been allowed, probably from its proximity to the pagan East.

Where instrumental help was allowed, it is easy to understand that the lyre, cithara, etc., would soon give way to the organ; the advantage of having the accompaniment under the control of one person would be apparent, and from the 5th MSS of the 8th, 9th, and later centuries show the cent. onwards the organ became supreme. Ancient use of the harp, the square stringed psaltery, the rotta or crwth (of the viol species), and trumpet, which the minstrel galleries seen in ancient churches both on the Continent and in England

confirm.1

In the minstrel gallery of Exeter Cathedral are representations of a cithern, bagpipe, harp, violin, tambourine, etc. In recent times a bagpipe lament has been played in York Minster. A MS of Charlemagne's time depicts King David singing Psalms, assisted by four musical instruments, the pneumatic organ, a sort of violin, E. F. Rimbault, The Organ3, London, 1877, p. 32). a trumpet and a set of bells (E. J. Hopkins and

Rivaulx Abbey (Yorkshire), in his Speculum ChariAelred, or Ethelred, the abbot (1109-66) of tatis, speaks of the common people' admiring 'the sound of organs, the sound of cymballs and musicall instruments, the harmony of the pipes and cornets' (Prynne's tr. ; see Davey, p. 19). Again, in the poem by Houlate, written in 1450, occurs this passage :

'Clarions loud knellis

Portatives [organs] and bellis.' John Case, writing in the Praise of Musicke in 1586, says:

'In our English Church the Psalmes may be song, and Song most cunningly and with diverse artificial instruments of musick' (Sayle, p. 83).

Later Fynes Morrison, in his Itinerary written at the end of the 16th cent., speaking of the Lutheran Church, says:

'Before Divine service they had music in the gallery of the Church, of wind instruments, namely organs, cornetts, sagbuttes, and the like' (quoted by H. Antcliffe, 'The Orchestra in Church,' Organist and Choirmaster, Jan. 1915, p. 386; see also K. Schlesinger, The Utrecht Psalter and its Bearings on the History of Musical Instruments,' Mus. Antiquary, Oct. 1910).

About A.D. 1600 instrumental accompaniment for oratorio was introduced. G. Gabrieli (15571612) had used four sackbuts (trombones) as an accompaniment to his 'Surrexit Christus'; but probably they were used only to double the vocal parts.

In the first 'sacred drama,' 'L'Anima ed il Corpo,' produced by Emilio del Cavaliere in Rome in 1600, 1 See Naumann, fig. 195, and p. 484.

Wherein doth our practice of singing in our churches differ from the practice of David?.. Doe wee not make one signe in praising and thanking God in voyces and instruments of all sorts?' (Sayle, p. 139).

for instance, fine renderings are given with orchestra of the principal oratorios.

It only remains to mention the English village orchestra which, as late as the middle of last century, was to be heard in most village churches. It consisted generally of a violin, bass, a flute or clarionet, and a bassoon. Their performances were perhaps not artistic, but their banishment by means of the harmonium was nevertheless a loss to the musical life of the countryside.

3. The organ.-The earliest mention of the organ as understood in the modern sense is with regard to the Roman hydraulus, or hydraulic organ, invented some three centuries before Christ. It is supposed, from references in the Talmud, to have been used in the Temple worship. Later it seems to have been heard in the Roman

It will be remembered that after the Restoration King Charles II. in 1660 sent Pelham Humphreys to France to learn the Italian style. Evelyn, writing in his diary on 21st Dec. 1662, remarks:

'One of his majesty's chaplains preached, after which, instead of ye antient, grave and solemn wind musiq accompany. ing ye organ, was introduced a concert of 24 violins between every pause, after ye French fantastical light way, better suiting a tavern, or a playhouse, than a church. This was ye first time of change, and now we no more hear the cornet1 wch gave life to ye organ; that instrument is quite left off, in which the English were so skilfull' (Bumpus, Eng. Cathedral Music, p. 124). 2. The orchestra. The modern orchestra may be said to date from about 1676, when the Italians Stradella (in his oratorio John the Baptist') and Alessandro Scarlatti were writing for the usual foundation of strings with various wood and brass wind instruments added for variety and colouring effects. Before that the older lutes, viols, flutes, cornets, etc., were used in the manner of vocal parts. At this time Italian music was pre-eminent. Our English Purcell took the Italian school as his model, and his 'Te Deum' and 'Jubilate,' written in 1694 with accompaniment for strings, trumpet, and organ, was a remarkable achievement.

We now come to the time of Bach († 1750) and Handel († 1759). Handel's oratorios were given in the concert room; Bach's Church cantatas were rendered in church and had an accompaniment of strings, oboes and bassoons, and high-pitched trumpets in addition to the organ. After the death of Handel the spirit of the orchestra invaded all branches of music. Haydn and Mozart were chapel-masters with modern orchestras at their command, and they composed Masses in concert style for church use, with accompaniment for full orchestra; their example has since been followed and only in recent years has declined. In England the Handel Commemoration held in Westminster Abbey in 1784, in which an orchestra of 250 instrumentalists took part, was a striking event. An orchestra in church on the occasion of festivals or oratorio presentations is now a common occurrence in this country. In St. Paul's Cathedral, 1 The ancient cornet was of wood (leather-covered) and resembled a flute with a trumpet mouth-piece. The shawm was a primitive clarionet and the sackbut an early form of trombone. All these were made in sets, small and large (see Stainer, Music of the Bible, also English Music, pp. 349 and 458 f.).

Organs seem to have been in common use in the Spanish churches in A.D. 450, according to Julianus, a Spanish bishop (Hopkins and Rimbault, The Organ3, London, 1877), while Pope Vitalian introduced the organ to Rome in the 7th cent. in order to assist the congregational singing. There were organs in Aix-la-Chapelle in 811. A hundred years before this the Anglo-Saxons were using organs in England, and they were introduced into there appears to have been a remarkably large Ireland in the 9th century. In the 10th cent. six bellows and containing four hundred pipes. In organ in Winchester Cathedral, blown by twentyScotland Fordun describes the use of the organ at the re-interment of the English Queen Margaret at Dunfermline in 1250.

So far the organ was a most cumbersome instrument, and in place of keys had rods or levers. In the 11th cent. clumsy short wooden keys were invented. These were beaten by the fist in much the same way as the keys for the church tower carillon, or peal of bells. As to organ-builders, the earliest known was a priest Van Os, who built the organ for St. Nicholas church, Utrecht, in 1120. Organ pedal keyboards in rudimentary form appeared in the 15th cent. as well as distinctive names for the stops, but the compass was still very limited.

Modern organ-playing is said to have begun in Italy with Francesco Landino († 1390), organist of St. Lorenzo in Florence. The church organ had hitherto been used to lead out the plain-song-in unison only. There were, however, smaller organs used which could be moved about. The positive, often circular in shape, had one or two rows of pipes. The portative, so small that it could be placed on the knees, was blown with one hand and played with the other, and it was on this smaller organ that organ-playing, as an art, originated. There was also, later on, the small reed organ called the regals in use; it was portable like the others (Hopkins and Rimbault, p. 39).

In the next century we find that organists of repute begin to appear.

The great popularity of the Lutheran chorale in Germany led to its being treated in artistic form for the organ and played as a prelude, or Choralvorspiele. Originally the organ was played only between the verses as mentioned, but in 1650 Samuel Scheidt († 1654), in his Tablatur Book, begins to treat the organ as an accompaniment also for the singing. In the Roman Church organ interludes helped to spread out the Magnificat to the necessary length when sung in procession. The greatest of Dutch organists, Jan Swelinck († 1621), at Antwerp, and Geronimo Frescobaldi († 1640),