lishments for the latter, of which every town of any note possesses, at least, one. In the latin Schools the student is final ly prepared for the Universities, and closes his course of “humaniora.” The whole of these institutions, with a few solitary exceptions, ‡ are public establishments, under the immediate superintendance and controul of the respective governments. The professors and masters receive a salary adequate to their station, which, generally, renders them independent of their pupils, On this account particular care is bestowed upon their selection. Even in the grammar Schools, the greater part of the teachers must have received a University education, and be known as men of moral character. The same is required of the junior masters in the Latin Schools, but a professorship therein cannot be obtained without distinguished talent and learning. In fact, nearly all the most eminent classical scholars, are, or were at least fora considerable time, professors in some of these Latin Schools. When, for instance, we were at Misnia, Dr. Koenig, (the editor and commentator of Claudianus and Persius) was rector, and the three senior professorships were occupied by Kreyssig, (the editor and commentator of Livy), Bornemann, (editor and commentator of Xenophon's works), and Lindemann, known by his edition of Plautus, his Thesaurus linguæ, Latine prosodiacus, and a small publication. "de Accentibus Linguae Latinae." The rector of the "Kreuzschule,” at Dresden, is Baumgarten-Crusius, who edited Eutropius, the Odyssey, Livy, Sueto nius, Ovid, Agesilaus, and Xenophon's Encomium Agesilai. At Altenburg is Matthiae, celebrated for his Greek grammar, and for his editions of Alcæ us, Aratus, Dionysius, Eratosthenes, Euripides, Herodotus, Homer's Batramyomachia, and Cicero's orations and letters, &c. Thus we might go all over Germany, and would hardly find a single town of any consequence, that cannot boast of some distinguished scholars, whose names are well known to the literary world, and may be seen in every catalogue of classics and philological writings. Each establishment has a head master, called Rector, Director, Schulrath, &c. who, either individually, or with the concurrence of the senior professors, directs the course of study, and all other affairs connected with the institution. The number of masters is different in the various establishments, and, on an average, amounts to five or six professors, and an equal, or greater number of teachers, besides the masters of foreign languages, drawing, &c. The whole of these are appointed by government, and receive, out of the public funds, fixed salaries, proportioned to the rank and extent of the establishment, and to the services required of them. The head masters have from 800 to 1200 dollars. The professors from 300 to 1000, and the junior masters from 150 to 300, which is sometimes paid partly in money, partly in kind. Besides their salaries, they also receive, in some places, a share of the school-money which the pupils have to pay for their tuition, but this is the case only where those fixed revenues are very low. There are, comparatively, but few schools, where the pupils reside at the establishment, but they, generally, live either with their parents and relations or board and lodge with the professors, or some other respectable private families, who are in the habit of receiving young students as inmates, and treat them as members of the family. In some places, however, a certain number of the pupils are either partly or altogether maintained and instructed at public expence, and in that case, they always reside at the school. Such estab lishments there are for instance at Berlin, Halle, Misnia, Schulpforta, Grimma, Leipzig, &c. &c. In many of these latter, the numbers are limited, on an average, from 150 to 250; but, where the pupils are expected to live in private families, there are no restrictions of this nature; and the increase or decrease of the frequenters depends on the literary celebrity of the rector and the masters, and the more or less favourable situation of the town. In some institutions, the number of young students amounts only to two hundred, whilst, in others, we find as many as 500, or 600, for example at the "Graue Kloster of Berlin.” The classes * We are acquainted with no more than one. † A dollar is about three shillings. into which they are divided, are generally fixed by the fundamental regulations of each establishment. At Misnia, for instance, there are but four; at the Waisenhaus of Halle, eight or nine, in each of which there usually are two sub-divisions. In most schools the course is fixed to a year, in which time the students are presumed to pass a class. They may, sometimes, do so in six months; but, if they be idle, they may not be promoted to a higher class even in two years. Up to a not very remote period, the Roman and Greek classics, and a little logic, and ancient history, used to form not only the principal, but almost the exclusive subjects of instruction in the Latin schools. This went so far, that modern history, mathematics, all modern languages, and even the mothertongue, were entirely neglected. The old professors themselves wrote and spoke Latin much more fluently than German, and frequently were more intimately acquainted with the internal and external affairs of Rome and Athens, than with those of their own country. But the last forty years have wrought a vast change. With the perriwigs those absurdities, also, were banished by degrees, and thus we find, at present, considerable attention paid to mathematics, the historical sciences, and especially to the cultivation of the mother-tongue. The folly of neglect ing the study of modern languages is clearly enough perceived by the different governments, and great efforts are at present being made to give them their proper weight in the instruction of youth. French, of course, is studied to a great extent; English ranks next; Italian and Spanish are about on a level with each other; Hebrew is attended to only by such young men as are intended for the church. Most lessons, with the exception of some modern languages, and Hebrew, are compulsory, and industry and assiduity are enforced by half-yearly examinations, of which we shall speak hereafter. The Latin classics, most usually read in the junior classes, are Eutropius, Cornelius Nepos, Cicero de Amicitia, Cæsar, and a selection from Ovid's Metamorphoses; in Greek, they begin with some Anthology, and subsequently take the New Testament, Xenophon's Cyropaedia, and the Odyssey. In the senior classes, we find Sallust, Livy, Curtius, Cicero de Officiis, and his Orations, and Tacitus. Amongst the poets, Virgil, Horace, and Terence. Of the Greek authors, they read, especially the Anabasis, some of Plutarch's Lives, Thucydides, and Plato's Dialogues, (particularly Lysis, Phaedrus, and sometimes Phaedo); the Iliad, Euripides, Sophocles and Eschylus, (generally, only Agamemnon). Isocrates' Panegyricus, Theophrast's Characters, and Pindar, are also read, but less frequently. Tibullus, Propertius, Juvenal, and Persius, are, as far as we know, not lectured upon, but frequently recommended to private study. In the junior classes, strict attention is paid, and constant reference had, to grammar; in the higher classes, where this, of course, becomes less necessary, all possible efforts are made to excite and quicken the critical judgment of the students; accordingly, after a portion has been translated, by the pupils, into German, and the Greek, frequently, also, into Latin, the professor comments upon it, for which purpose he always keeps his own commentary, which, usually, he communicates in Latin, and which the pupils take notes of. Besides the "Notae variorum," and his own critical observations, he also gives them the different readings, and generally requires some one of the students to argue his opinion, pro or contra, which frequently gives rise to a sort of disputatorium, wherein the professor acts as chairman, or even now and then takes a part himself. Moreover, it always is so arranged, that, in the higher classes, where the judgment of the pupils is already somewhat matured, different professors lecture upon the different authors, which prevents the students from forming narrow and * These commentaries, and critical observations, generally form the principal part of those which we see afterwards published in their editions of the classics. The writer, for instance, had a great part of Kreyssigs notes to Livy, in his memoranda, long before that celebrated professor published his edition of Livy, 5vols. 8vo. Leipzig, 1823. partial views, and excludes the verba jurare magistri." in Besides the authors appointed for the regular lectures, usually some others less difficult, are either read in a cursory manner, as it is called, without more than occasional comments, or recommended to a private study of which the pupils afterwards have to give an account. In some establish ments, they also have one or two hours in the week fixed for a regular Dispu tatorium. One of the class has to write a dissertation which is handed round amongst his fellow-students, and afterwards attacked and opposed by them. The discussions sometimes grow very warm, and in such cases an appeal to the "vir doctissimus" is usual, Latin and Greek exercises, and in the higher classes free compositions also, especially in Latín, are much practised, and have a very beneficial result. Prosody forms an especial part of instruction in the junior classes, metrical compositions (sometimes free, that is; the theme only being given) are practised in the senior. Ancient and modern geography and statistics are taught only in the lower and middle classes, Roman and Greek Antiquities, and Logic, in the higher; but History and Mathematics in all. German composition and Literature are at present much attended to, and in some countries, for instance, Prussia, there is an especial time fixed for the reading of ancient German works; for example, the Niebdeugenlied. About two hours a-week are destined for instruction in the prevalent religion, it being left optional with those who profess a different creed, to attend or not. The attendance to most other lessons is, as already mentioned, compulsory, but as the mere obligation to attend lecture would not be sufficient to insure the progress of the pupils, or the due exertions of the masters, general public examinations have been considered the most efficacious means to attain both objects. They usually are held at the end of every half-year, viz., Easter and Michaelmas. The Rector, by a Latin programma containing some critical inquiry into a classical or similar subject,* invites the patrons of the establishment, the parents of the pupils, and the public in general, to favour with their presence, the "actus," which is held with great solemnity in some large hall of the institution, and opened by a speech of the Rector. Each class is then examined by its in the subjects taught during the past half-year, and in the intervals, some of the senior students deliver speeches or poems, composed by themselves, in different languages, on a given or self-chosen subject, whilst some of the junior pupils recite similar compositions selected from ancient or modern authors. After the general examination there follows a special one of those students who intend to leave the School for the University. This latter, particularly, is in most instances very severe-the more so, as the certificate obtained thereby is of great weight not only at the University, but even later, when the young men after having accom plished their academical course, apply for an office in the state. Upon having passed this examination, which usually lasts several days, sentence is pronounced by the Board of Professors, whether or not the Student be qualified for the University, and if so, a certificate is delivered to him stating in due form his degree of qualification, which usually is done by the numbers one, two, or three; those who are not able to obtain even number three are not admitted into any University, but must stay another half-year. To avoid, however, partiality on the part of the professors, it is, especially in Prussia, left open to the Student to apply for a new examination by a certain board, which for this purpose is appointed at every University. The hours of instruction usually are from 8 till 12 in the morning, and from 2 till 4 or 5 in the afternoon; each lecture commonly lasts about one hour, * For instance, Critical observations on some difficult or obscure passages of Roman or Greek classics,-historical and critical inquiry into some subject of antiquity,grammatical inquiries, as for example, into the nature of the the Accus. c. Inf,,-the accents, peculiar metres,-different dialects,-in which frequently uncommon depth of learning is displayed. and an interval of about 10 minutes is allowed between the lessons. The afternoons of Wednesdays and Saturdays in most places are granted for the recreation of the Pupils. Vacations usually are, a week or fortnight at hristmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and Michaelmas, and three or four Weeks at Midsummer. During these the Students either return to their homes or make excursions, sometimes in parties, through the country. In those Schools where the Pupils reside at the Establishments, the discipline is generally pretty severe. When they live in private families, they are treated as the children of the house, partake, whenever their time permits it, of the amusements of their hosts, and usually are very comfortable. This mode of living in private families has a great and salutary influence, not only upon their morals but also upon their manners, for whilst they must attend to their studies, they do not, as is but too frequently the case in other places, lose the advantages of social education, and their constant living in good society prevents them from becoming rude and clownish. At the same time the Rector and the Professors always exercise a certain controul even over their domestic behaviour. During school time they are, of course, entirely under the discipline of the masters, and idleness or misconduct is punished by them. In the junior classes caning is now and then resorted to, but seldom; the shameful system of flogging is never even so much as heard of. Usually they have at every establishment and, especially, where the pupils are resident, a certain room for the confinement of such as are guilty of misdemeanour, idleness, &c. In some institutions this is considered a great disgrace. At Berlin for example, where there are five Gymnasia, it is, particularly in the higher classes, thought nearly as bad as expulsion; in other places, however, it is less so. Old Dr. Koenig at Misnia, for instance, used to say, when a student came too late for his lecture," I shall send you for an hour into a cool place." In the junior classes, where the pupils generally are between eleven and fourteen years of age, they are of course, treated as boys and according to German custom called, "thou;" " Du," but the seniors generally between fourteen and eighteen years old, are treated with more distinction and consequently addressed in the third person plural, "Sie." The total expence of education is but trifling when compared to this and other countries. Where the pupils do not reside within the establishment, the junior students pay for their instruction from four to ten dollars per annum, the senior from twelve to twenty-four. Of the private families who are in the habit of taking students as inmates, many belong to the most respectable classes of society; their charges, of course, are different, but generally between one hundred and fifty and two hundred dollars (£20 to £45) a-year.* With the Professors and at the public institutions themselves, the charges are similar, but never higher; on the contrary, usually somewhat lower. For indigent individuals generally the governments have made excellent provisions; a recommendation from a Ĉlergyman, from one of the professors, or a gentleman of similar respectability and a "testimonium paupertatis is usually sufficient to obtain instruction gratis, and every country has an adequate number of establishments where they are received as residents and supplied with board, lodging, and even clothing, either without any, or sometimes at a very trifling expence. In this respect the munificence of the governments and the voluntary sacrifices of the masters are very great, and cannot be praised too highly. An industrious and talented youth, however poor he may be, hardly ever can be at a loss in Germany, whether at school or at the Universities, he always will find support from public or private foundations, if he be deserving of it. Here we beg to conclude our ac count of the German Schools, which does not rest upon mere vague reports and partial information, but on an intimate personal acquaintance with many of those establishments and their Professors. In some future number we hope to have an opportunity of giving a more extended account of the Universities of Germany. * The writer lived for some time in the family of a counsellor of one of the courts at Berlin, where he paid 300 dollars per annum, equivalent to 45 pounds sterling. VOL. I. 30 King George the Third, of good and happy memory, used to say, "I find no honesty in these Whigs." We echo his sacred voice, and add, "nor find we any particle of practical knowledge or political sagacity. Therefore we put no faith in them-their measures, predictions, promises. Much rather do we seriously incline to lend a listening ear to the opinions of that high and honored band, which, by the mouth of their chief, the venerable Earl of Eldon, fore told that when the Test and Corporation Act was repealed, and the Eman cipation Bill enacted, the barriers of the constitution were broken down, the bulwarks destroyed, and the citadel it self placed in such a situation that it must speedily follow the fate of its outworks. The words of these men have proved true; their honesty is unimpeached, and unimpeachable, and there fore them we can well trust. But with res pect to Ireland, we do sincerely believe that it could never have come into the dreadful condition to which many parts of the kingdom are now, or have been lately reduced, had the Duke of Wellington continued at the head of the administration. The Duke had promised, and he, too, is a man of his word, that if the measure of emancipation which (as he himself acknowledged, against his better judgment,) he proposed and carried, should not suffice to content and pacify Ireland, he would come down to Parliament, and ask its assent to measures by which he would undertake and pledge himself to put an effectual stop to outrage and agitation in this kingdom. Something of this kind the Whigs have at length been driven to attempt, after a long and wretched period of neglect and misrule. After having, by weak and ignorant government, caused exasperation to rise to its greatest height, and permitted violence to assume its most dreadful and formidable shape, they now seek, by the extreme of severity, to atone for the extreme of imbecility, and by assuming a power beyond that which the constitution allows, to make up for having so long permitted the constitution, and the laws, to be outraged and insulted with impunity. The Whigs, with that curious infelicity of management which has pervaded every public act of theirs, since they came into office, (in private jobbery they seem, happily for themselves, far more fortunate,) appointed to the government of Ireland the very man whom the Duke had been obliged to dismiss, from that high office, because his imprudence rendered him incompetent to the proper discharge of its arduous and most responsible duties. The gallant Anglesey" and a very bold dragoon we acknowledge him to be, was most fortunately crazed with the besetting sin of Whigs, an inordinate vanity, and a ridiculous passion for display. "To this, all the solid usefulness that might ever have been in the man, was wholly sacrificed, and having played the game of mob-courting popularity once too often, he has long since fallen into contempt and dislike, even with the “rabble commons," the senseless noise of whose loud huzzas, was to him, as the breath of his nostrils. The King's representative fairly pitted himself against Mr. O'Connell in a personal contest for mob-applause and lost the battle.Since then, the arch-agitator, and not the military Marquis, has been chief governor of the win Ireland, Mr. O'Connell, with the formidable array of the regimented and rent-collecting Repeal associators at his heels, and the priests or their agents in his council chamber, can wield at will five or six millions of the population of Ireland. He, too, has overshot his mark, and has given the Whigs, with all their folly, an advantage over him, by creating a practical case of wide-spread national insubordination, which made it necessary for the Conservatives to step in and assist the Whigs to overthrow the villainous supremacy of assassins with which they were threatened. Mr. O'Connell with the aid of his allies, throughout the chapels and the whiskey-houses, the open fairs, and the secret gatherings of the peasantry, čan doubtless keep down outrage if he likes he did so once already or a long ries of months, when he had a point to carry by their remaining peaceable. It has been shown that a political associ. |