we have nearly all the writers of any merit who cultivated either sacred or profane learning.'

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF RELIGION AND OF THEOLOGY.

§ 1. The Christian doctrine corrupted-§ 2. The piety and morals of this age. § 3. Exegetical theology-§ 4. Charles the Great's zeal for sacred learning5. It led to neglect of the Bible — § 6. Manner of treating didactic theology 7. Practical theology-§ 8. Polemic theology-§ 9. Origin of the controversy about images-§ 10. Progress of it under Leo the Isaurian-§ 11. Conflicts of the image-worshippers with the Iconoclasts § 12. Progress under Copronymus § 13. Under Irene- § 14. Council of Frankfort -§ 15. Controversy respecting the procession of the Holy Spirit.

§ 1. THE fundamental doctrines of the Christian religion were preserved both by the Greek and the Latin writers. This will appear unquestionable to one who shall inspect the work of John Damascenus among the Greeks, on the orthodox faith; and the profession of faith by Charles the Great, among the Latins. But to this pure seed of the word, more tares were added than can be well imagined.

The very nature of religion, and the true worship of God, were corrupted, by those who contended for image-worship, and for similar institutions, with such fierceness as excluded all charity. The efficacy of the merits of our Saviour, all acknowledged; and yet all tacitly depreciated them, by maintaining that men can appease God, either by undergoing voluntary punishments, or by offering him gifts and presents; and by directing those who were anxious about their salvation, to place confidence in the works of holy men. To explain the other defects and superstitions of the times, would carry us beyond the limits prescribed in this work.

§ 2. The whole religion or piety of this, and of some subsequent centuries, consisted in founding, enriching, embellishing, and enlarging churches and chapels; in hunting after and venerating the relics of holy men; in securing the patronage with God of individuals in heaven, by gifts and superstitious rites and ceremonies; in worshipping the images and statues of saints; in performing pilgrimages to holy places, especially to Palestine;' and in like practices. In these services, which were supposed to have the greatest efficacy in procuring salvation, the virtuous and good were equally zealous with the vicious and profligate; the latter, that they might cancel their crimes and wickedness; the former, that they might obtain earthly blessings from God, and secure a more ready admission to heavenly bliss. The true religion of Jesus Christ, if we except a few dogmas contained in their creeds, was wholly unknown in this age, even to the teachers of the highest rank: and all orders of society from the highest to the lowest, neglecting the duties of true piety, and the renovation of the heart, fearlessly gave themselves up to every vice and crime, supposing that God could easily be appeased and become reconciled to them by the intercessions and prayers of the saints, and by the friendly offices of the priests, the ministers of God. The whole history of these times avouches the truth of these remarks.2

§ 3. The Greeks thought the sacred volume to have been explained sufficiently well by their forefathers. Hence biblical students were considered as effectually served by extracts collected from ancient writers who had commented upon Scripture, whether well or ill. How judiciously this was done, will appear, among other works, from the Commentary of John Damascenus on St. Paul's epistles compiled from Chrysostom. The Latin interpreters are of two classes. Some, like the Greeks, collect in one body the interpretations of the ancients.

One of these was Bede, who took this course in an exposition of St. Paul's epistles, which he drew from Augustine and others. The other class made trial of their own skill in expounding the sacred volume; and among these, Alcuin, Bede, Ambrose Authpert (the interpreter of the Apocalypse), and a few more, stand conspicuous. But these lack the ability requisite for this business; and neglecting altogether the true import of the words, hunt after recondite meanings which they distribute into the allegorical, the anagogical, and the tropological; that is, they tell us, not what the inspired writers say, but what they vainly suspect those writers would signify to us. As examples, we may name Alcuin's Commentary on John, Bede's allegorical Explanations of the Books of Samuel, and Charles the Great's Book on Images, in which various passages of Scripture are expounded, according to the customs of the age.3

§ 4. Charles's reverence for the sacred volume was so great, that it went beyond due bounds; and led him to believe, the fundamental principles of all arts and sciences to be contained in the Bible; a sentiment which he imbibed, undoubtedly, from Alcuin, and the other divines whom he was accustomed to hear. Hence originated his various efforts to excite the clergy to a more diligent investigation and explanation of the sacred books. Laws, enacted by him for this purpose, are still extant; and there are other proofs that no subject was nearer to his heart. That errors in copies of the Latin translation might be no obstacle to his designs, he employed Alcuin to pick them out and correct them; nay, he himself spent some time, during the last years of his life, upon their correction. There are those who tell us also, that he procured a translation of the sacred books into German: but others attribute this to his son, Lewis the Pious.9

§ 5. These efforts of the emperor, were effective to awaken exertion in some of the slothful and indolent. Yet it must be admitted that he inadvertently adopted regulations and plans which defeated, in part, his excellent purposes. In the first place, he sanctioned the practice which had prevailed before his day, of reading and expounding only certain portions of the sacred volume in the assemblies of worship; and the diverse customs of the different churches he endeavoured to reduce to one uniform standard. 10 In the next place, knowing that

On the Commentaries of Bede, see Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliothèque Ecclésiast. de M. du Pin, i. 280, &c. See also his Exposition of Genesis, derived from the fathers; in Martene's Thesaurus Anecdotor. v. 111, 116, 140; and the Interpretation of Habakkuk; ibid. 295, &c.

2 See Charles the Great, de Imaginibus, lib. i. p. 138.

See Charles, de Imag. 1. i. p. 84, 91, 123, 127, 131, 133, 136, 138, 145, 160, 164, 165, &c. passim.

Idem, de Imagin. l. i. P. 44.

5 Idem, de Imagin. 1. i. p. 231, 236.

▾ Cæsar Baronius, Annales, ad. ann. 778, $27, &c. Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. Medii Evi, i. 137. Histoire Littéraire de la France, iv. 300.

8 Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. Medi Evi, i. 950, &c. Jac. Ussher, de Sacris et Scripturis Vernaculis, p. 110, &c. [See also Schroeckh's Kirchengesch. xx. 196, &c. Tr.]

[See Du Chesne, Scriptores Hist. Franc. ii. 326. Tr.]

10 It must be acknowledged, that it is a mistake to suppose the emperor Charles to have first selected those portions of the sacred volume, which are still read and ex

See Jo. Frick, de Canone Scriptur. S. pounded, every year, in the assemblies of

P. 184.

Christians. For it appears, that in preced

few of the clergy were competent to explain the Gospels and Epistles, as the lessons were called; he directed Paul the Deacon, and Alcuin, to collect Homilies, or discourses on them, out of the fathers; so that the ignorant and slothful teachers might recite them to the people. This was the origin of what is called his Homiliarium, or Book of Homilies.' And his example led others, in this and the next age, to compile at their own pleasure similar works, for the encouragement of laziness among the teachers. Lastly, he caused the lives of the most eminent saints to be collected into a volume; so that the people might have, in the dead, examples worthy of imitation, while they had none among the living. That all these regulations proceeded from honest and good intentions, and, indeed, that they were useful in that age, no one can doubt. But still, contrary to the intentions of the emperor, they contributed not a little to confirm the indolence of the public teachers, and to increase neglect of the sacred volume. For, from this time onward, most of the clergy directed their attention exclusively to those portions of the Bible, which were to be expounded to the people; and did not exercise themselves in reading and examining the whole volume of Scripture; and not many were to be found who were inclined to compose their own public discourses, rather than resort to their Homiliarium.

§ 6. The business of discussing formally and systematically the doctrines of Christianity, was scarcely attempted by any one of the Latins. For the essays of some few, respecting the person and

ing centuries, in most of the Latin churches, certain portions of the inspired books were assigned to the several days for public worship. See Jo. Hen. Thamer, Schediasma de Origine et Dignitate Pericoparum, quæ Evangelia et Epistolæ vulgo vocantur; which has been several times printed. Also, Jo. Fr. Buddeus, Isagoge ad Theologiam, ii. 1640, &c. [1426, &c.] Yet Charles had something to do in this matter. For whereas before his time the Latin churches differed, or did not all read and expound the same portions of the Bible; he first ordained, that all the churches, throughout his dominions, should conform to the custom of the Roman church. For those Gospels and Epistles, as they are called, which have been expounded in public worship, from his times to the present, were used at Rome, as early as the sixth century: and it is well known that Charles took pains to render the Roman form of worship the common form of all the Latins. And hence, down to this day, those churches which have not adopted the Romish rites, use for lessons other Gospels and Epistles than those of ours, and the other Western churches, which Charles commanded to conform. The church of Milan is an example, which retains the Ambrosian ritual; likewise the church of Chur (Curia), according to Muratori, Antiquitates Ital. iv. 836,

and, undoubtedly, some others. What Gospels and Epistles were used by the French and other Western churches, before the times of Charles, may be learned from the ancient Kalendars, published by Martene (among others), Thesaurus Anecdotor. v. 66

and from Bede's discourses, ibid. v. 339, &c., from Mabillon, de Antiqua Liturgia Gallicana; and from others. See also Wm. Peyrat, Antiquitez de la Chapelle du Roi de France, p. 566.

1 See, concerning this, the very laborious and learned Jo. Henr. a Seelen, Selecta Litteraria, p. 252.

2 Halanus, or Alanus, for example, an Italian abbot of Farfa, compiled, in this same century, a huge Homiliarium; the preface to which was published by Bernh. Pez, Thesaur. Anecdotor. t. vi. pt. i. p. 83. In the next century, Haymo of Halberstadt made up a Homiliarium; which has been printed. In the same century, Rabanus Maurus, at the request of the emperor Lothair. formed a Homiliarium; and likewise Hericus, mentioned by Pez, ubi supra, p. 93. All these made use of the Latin language. The first that composed a German Homiliarium, I suppose, was the celebrated Ottfrid of Weissenburg. See Lambecius, de Bibliotheca Vindobon. Augusta, t. ii. c. v. p. 419.