To remedy this state of matters, Odo, Abbot of Cluny, compelled the monks under him to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with their rules, and to give these a strict observance. He also added a new set of rites and ceremonies. Great numbers of the other Benedictine monasteries adopted this revised code, and owned the Abbot of Cluny as their head, giving him the title of Arch-Abbot. This example, and the great success which attended it, led several others likewise at different times to establish minor orders or congregations of monasteries. One of the most numerous and famous of these was the Cistercian order, founded in the end of the eleventh century. They adhered to the rule of Benedict as the fundamental basis of their constitution, and consequently were but a branch of the Benedictine order. The members of this order were sometimes called Bernardines, after Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, who was a man of great learning, and exerted a most powerful influence throughout all Europe. He added 160 communities to the Cistercian order, and in his own abbey at Clairvaux 700 monks had their home. He flourished in the beginning of the twelfth century, and is looked upon as the second "father" of the Cistercian order, which shortly after his time was exceedingly popular, and could boast of 1800 abbeys. In the twelfth century quite a new idea with regard to the internal arrangement of the monasteries was started. Hitherto the sexes had been kept (theoretically) quite distinct, the monks not being allowed to have any women whatever about the monasteries, and the nuns likewise being forbidden to have any males within the convent except for religious purposes. But Robert of Arbriselles instituted a new order under the rule of Benedict, to which he made several additions, the most important of which was, that the monks and nuns of the order should dwell in separate buildings, but within the same enclosure, and under the government of one abbess. This advocate of woman's supremacy and petticoat government claimed to have divine authority for his idea, because, said he, "Christ commended John to the care of the Virgin Mary.' Strange as it may seem, this form of monastery came to be quite common. Many of the old British monasteries were of this class.

Robert the founder was not, however, allowed to live altogether undisturbed, as many had the audacity to declare that his life was not so holy as he pretended, nor yet the "holy virgins" of his monasteries so chaste as they ought to have been. Whether true or not, this style of monastic life naturally led to such scandalous stories being circulated. In the end of the eleventh century, some say in the year 1084, the Carthusian Order was founded by Bruno, a native of Cologne. This man having obtained permission from the Bishop of Grenoble, retired with a few companions to a desert sort of place called Chartreux, near to Grenoble, from whence they derived the name of Carthusians. Here the manner of life which they adopted was extremely rigorous and severe, and in later years was made still more so. It is said that but few females ever joined this order on account of their very extravagant mode of life; and in the year 1368 a law was passed expressly forbidding the establishment of any more female convents of this order. In the beginning of the twelfth century. (1121) a German nobleman, who had entered into holy orders, founded the order of Premonter. The members of this order, when it was first established, had obeyed the "rule of poverty" to such an extent that all their possessions consisted of a solitary ass. But they grew in favour with the public so very rapidly that within thirty years they had above 100 al beys

in France and Germany, and in course of time this number increased to such a degree that when in their glory they possessed 1000 abbeys, 500 nunneries, and a large number of priories. In the year 1177 several nuns of this order were brought into England; and at the time of the Reformation in Scotland, among the monasteries and priories which were then destroyed, several belonged to this order. The "order of Cluny," the Cistercian, and the Carthusian also, each lost several.

In 1215 the Council of Lateran passed a decree prohibiting the formation of any new orders," as they had become so numerous that even Romish authorities professed to be tired of their almost endless varieties. This decree, however, was but little attended to, and not long after, the idea was originated of having an order of monks bound by a vow to remain not only individually poor, but also poor as a community, and to obtain a living by begging. Before long mendicant monks and licensed begging became so common throughout Europe as to be a perfect burden to the common people, and a nuisance to all. This arrived at such a height that in 1272 Pope Gregory X., by a decree passed in a general council at Lyons, abolished and suppressed all these orders of begging monks excepting four, viz., the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Hermits of St Augustine, and the Carmelites. The members of these four privileged orders were allowed to travel, to converse with all ranks of society, and to instruct the young, and preach to the people wherever they liked; and as they took good care to make as great a show of holiness and gravity as possible, they rapidly rose in public estimation, and in those days of ignorance were supported wherever they went. As these orders (especially the Franciscan and Dominican) came in after years to be by far the most powerful and influential of all the orders which existed previous to the Reformation, and in fact have only been excelled by the Jesuits, we shall briefly describe their origin.

The Carmelites were originally founded by Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, in the twelfth century. Their first monastery was built in Mount Carmel on the spot from which Elijah was supposed to have ascended into heaven. In the thirteenth century this order was introduced into Europe, and in 1226 Pope Honorius III. honoured it with the approbation and protection of the Church. Their claim to great antiquity led at one time to a long and bitter contest between them and the Jesuits, who disputed its truth. In 1698 the matter was settled by Pope Innocent XII., who made both parties hold their tongues and say no more about it. The "Hermits of St Augustin" were the modern representatives of the ancient solitaries. In the year 1256 Pope Alexander IV. collected the hermits, who were divided into various societies-some observing one rule of discipline, and some another-into one order, under the name of "the Hermits of St Augustin." It was to this order that Luther belonged when a monk. The Franciscans derive their name from Francis of Assisium, who established their order and secured for it the Papal approbation from Pope Innocent III., and again from Honorius III. in 1223. Francis, who is a canonised saint of Rome, when a young man led such a profligate and vicious life as brought on severe bodily illness. After his recovery, remorse of conscience for his former misdeeds led him into the opposite extreme. One day, being in a church, and hearing read the words of Scripture, which Christ addressed to His followers when sending them on a missionary tour, "Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses;

nor scrip for your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes, nor yet staves: for the workman is worthy of his meat," (Matt. x. 9, 10,) he immediately leaped to the conclusion that voluntary poverty was the very life, essence, and power of the gospel and true religion. To carry his idea into practice, he determined to found an order, the members of which should be bound by a vow requiring poverty both as individuals and as a community. He came to Rome and applied to the reigning Pontiff, Innocent III., for the approval of his scheme. The congregation of cardinals, on being consulted, gave it as their opinion that they had orders enough already. But one night Innocent dreamed that he saw the Lateran Church falling, and that it was only saved from utter destruction by the intervention of Francis. Impressed with his dream, he at once gave the required legal sanction for the establishment of the new order. From a pretence of great humility, Francis would not allow members of his order to be called "Fratores," or Brethren, but "Fratores-minores," Little Brethren, or Friars-minor. This order increased so very rapidly, that ten years after its institution a general chapter, called by Francis, was attended by 5000 friars. They came into England in the reign of King Henry III., and built their first monastery at Canterbury.

Only about five years after Francis had obtained from Innocent III. authority to establish his order, Dominic came to Rome on a similar errand. The cardinals were again inclined to refuse the request, but Innocent's dream coming back to him again, but with Dominic, instead of Francis, supporting the Church, all difficulties were at once removed, and Dominic got his desire. Dominic was born in 1170, at Calaroya, in Old Castile. An old story tells us, that before his birth, his mother dreamed she was the parent of a dog with a burning torch, which set the world on fire. At an early age he engaged in "holy orders," and was employed as a preacher against the Albigenses. He afterwards became quite famous for his activity, his fanaticism, and his cruelty, in suppressing the truth, and extirpating so-called heretics. For this purpose the Inquisition was established, and the management of it placed in the hands of Dominic and his monks. The monks of his order were at first known by the name of preaching friars," but were afterwards called Dominicans, in honour of their founder. In England, into which country they came in 1221, founding a monastery at Oxford, they went by the name of Black Friars. In 1276 they obtained a grant of a large tract of ground by the Thames in London, on which they erected a very large monastery. This part of London is still known by the name of Blackfriars.

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These two orders (the Franciscans and Dominicans) rapidly increased in numbers, power, and influence, and were for a long time the stay and support of the Popes. Being, from their constitution, incapable of acquiring landed property to any great extent, and so obtaining a fixed source of revenue, the Popes, in place of this, and in return for the services done by them, appointed them to all sorts of lucrative situations, and granted them licence to preach, to hear confession, and grant absolution everywhere, without even consulting the local bishops. To the Franciscans was committed the charge of the treasury of the Church, out of which “indulgencies" were sold. The granting of such privileges to these new orders," thus interfering to a very great extent with the ancient prerogatives of the regular clergy, caused much dissatisfaction among the bishops and others, and led to many serious disputes and troubles. Indeed, these

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quarrels and squabbles, and the manner in which the sale of indulgencies came to be carried on, in a great measure paved the way for the Reformation of the sixteenth century.

Between the thirteenth and the sixteenth centuries many of the orders came to be divided into sections, owing to disputes as to the meaning and extent of their rules of discipline. For example, the Franciscans quarrelled among themselves about their rule of poverty, which absolutely prohibited both individual and collective property to the monks of this order. They were to possess "neither fund, revenue, nor any worldly goods," but were in reality "to be sturdy beggars." Some thought this rule too severe, and took the liberty of dispensing with it, and were in this countenanced by Gregory IX., who in 1231 issued his interpretation of the rule, which considerably modified its rigour. This, however, gave great dissatisfaction to some of the more austere members, and led to a long and hot dispute, which in course of time divided the order into two main divisions-the one called "Conventual Brethren," following Pope Gregory's interpretation of the rule, and the other, "Brethren of the Observation," adhering to the original rule in all its strictness. During the fourteenth century this quarrel was carried to such an extraordinary extent that, it is said, many lost their lives rather than yield to their opponents. The Carmelites also quarrelled as to the meaning of some of their rules, and in the sixteenth century came to be divided into two almost distinct orders, each having its own general. The most austere of these were called "bare-footed Carmelites," or "bare-footed friars." But for a considerable time prior to the Reformation, the Dominicans were by far the most powerful and influential; the terrible Inquisition was in their hands; they held the posts of confessors at all the courts of Europe, and nearly all the chief stations in the Church were filled by friars of this order. From a period as early as the ninth century, monks were sometimes chosen to act as ambassadors, and to do similar work in the service of the sovereigns of Europe. In later years they came thus to exert a very great influence in the political world; and well did they know how to manage affairs for their own and the Pope's benefit. The Dominicans had their own share of this kind of work, and at the time of the Reformation exerted the influence they thus possessed in opposing the progress of the truth.

In following out the history of these monastic orders, great differences in the style and manner of their mode of life are noticeable. At the first we see the ascetic life of the hermits. Then we observe communities of men and women who were supposed to spend their lives in contemplation and prayer shut up in convents and monasteries, their whole time, talents, and thoughts being concentrated on themselves. Then, again, we find such orders as the Franciscans and the Dominicans, (preaching friars,) mixing more with the world, and even taking an active share in its government. But the severe blow inflicted on the Papacy by the Reformation required another development. Men were becoming enlightened, the art of printing had brought about quite a revolution in the literary world, and something different from either the fire and fierceness of Dominic or the imagination of Francis, was needed to maintain its place alongside of the growing intelligence, the sturdy love of truth, and freedom of conscience, which were part of the fruits of the Reformation. Open force, such as the Inquisition supplied, would not do in lands where the law did not allow of such establishments; and even opposition by preaching friars was not enough

when the friars could not get the people to listen to them; or if they did, were constantly annoyed by finding their arguments and reasonings completely refuted, by some, perhaps, not very learned tradesman, who had, however, been studying his Bible, as printed in his native tongue. What was now required was neither examples of self-mortification or inactive contemplation, nor yet open opposition or physical force. People would no longer be knowingly hood-winked and driven - they must be drawn.

Men of learning, possessed of highly cultivated intellects, of self-control, and of polished and winning manners, were what was now required to meet and oppose the mighty torrent of Reformation. Such men were supplied by the order of the Jesuits. This order, which was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, differed considerably from the orders which previously existed, and in power and influence rapidly eclipsed them all. Paul III., to whom Ignatius applied for the confirmation and recognition of his order, at first hesitated to give his sanction, but Ignatius cunningly overcame all his scruples, by adding to the proposed constitution of his society a vow, to the effect that its members would render to the Pope unlimited submission-a simple, unhesitating, implicit obedience to all his commands, even though he should order them to the most disagreeable tasks, or send them to the most distant corners of the world. At the same time, they were to maintain themselves without any remuneration from the Roman see. Curiously enough, they likewise had to promise the same implicit obedience to the commands of the general of their order. How to get out of the difficulty, and yet keep their vows, when the Pope's orders differed from their general's, it would take a Jesuit to tell. The Jesuits were not to shut themselves up in convents, but to go forth throughout the world as missionaries, and in any, and every possible way, maintain and extend the power of the Pope. They established colleges for educating and training those desirous of becoming members of their society; and none were admitted but such as, after trial, were found to be possessed of qualities likely to be useful. In fact, their code of secret instructions was only made known to the older and more experienced members. The whole order was divided into several classes. There were the "professed members" having "professed houses" for their head-quarters; then the "scholars" who taught in their colleges, and the "novices" who lived in "houses of probation." The "scholars" possessed large revenues for the maintenance of the colleges, &c. ; they were also obliged to contribute to the expenses of the "professed members," who were liable at any time to be sent any where; and, as has been said, be ready to lie or die whenever the necessities of the "order or the commands of the Pope required. In 1540, when Ignatius applied for the Papal sanction to his order, he had only ten followers; but in 1608 the Jesuits numbered 10,581, and in 1710 they possessed twenty-four "professed houses," fifty-nine "houses of probation," 340 "residences," 612 "colleges," 200 missions, 150 seminaries and boarding schools, and numbered 19,998 Jesuits. And, we must bear in mind, these were all men carefully picked out for their talents and trained to their work. One thing which contributed very much to their increase in power and influence was the dexterity and cunning which they exhibited in drawing up codes of morality suited to all tastes and dispositions. In this way, and by their laxity of doctrine, they managed to secure for themselves all those situations as confessors and "keepers of the