contrary, the other branches of the curative art have found in electricity an efficacious auxiliary. This is the reason why I have sought to investigate solely the actions of this agent in reference to mental alienation, and to prepare the elements of an ulterior experimental research; never forgetting that if it be useful to make known the good results produced by the electric current, it is not the less necessary to guard against thoughtless infatuation.

ART. V.-WILLIAM CULLEN:-A PSYCHOLOGICAL
STUDY.*

WILLIAM CULLEN was born at Hamilton, in Scotland, on the 15th of April, 1710. Of his boyhood little is known, save that he was a lad of lively manner, uncommon quickness of apprehension, and great retentiveness of memory. From this text the psychologist seeks to ascertain in what manner grew an intellectual superiority which placed its possessor among the giants of medical science, and in what that intellectual superiority chiefly consisted. The substratum, so far as known, cannot be said to be a rare one; for there are few schools in which could not be found lads whose disposition, readiness of apprehension, and power of memory might not be described in terms similar to those which have been used to distinguish Cullen's boyish characteristics. Hence it may be that, in tracing the development of Cullen's mind, we may learn in some degree why it is that Cullens are so few, while the species of soil from which he grew is plentiful.

Cullen received his preliminary tuition in the Grammar School of Hamilton, at the hands of a teacher of much repute. That this instruction was solid and substantial is certain from the circumstances under which it was given; that Cullen benefited by it to the full is evinced by the opening of his medical studies. From the Hamilton Grammar School he was sent to the University of Glasgow. We know little of the character of his studies in that university, except that his name is to be found in the list of students who, in 1727, attended the mathematical lectures of the celebrated Dr. Simson. The principal facts of this period of Cullen's life are these:-He was bound an apprentice to a Mr. John Paisley, a member of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons at Glasgow, and in extensive practice in that city, and.

* "An Account of the Life, Lectures, and Writings of William Cullen, M.D., Professor of the practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh. Commenced by Dr. John Thomson and Dr. William Thomson, and concluded by David Cragie, M.D." Edinburgh: Blackwood and Sons. 1859.

while with that gentleman he had an advantage which may be fairly presumed to have been a chief fostering cause of Cullen's future greatness.

Mr. Paisley was a man of studious disposition, and he had collected a large and valuable medical library. To this Cullen had free access. He had received an education fitting him to comprehend what he read; he had a master who knew the value of reading; he had books-at that time a rare advantage-and so prepared and so guided, he early cultivated a taste for reading. Thus, while he listened to professorial lectures, while he was enabled to mark the practical working of the medical art, he had at his command the teachings of the great masters of that art. That this latter advantage was the differential element which determined the active habits of inquiry that marked the whole of his life, may be assumed from the literary characteristics of that life, and from the value which he attached to the use of a library by students during his professorial career, as shown by the following incidents.

When Cullen, many years after his apprenticeship, became a lecturer in the University of Glasgow, the library of Mr. Paisley, as a mark of regard to Cullen, was thrown open to all his students; and, subsequently, in Edinburgh, Cullen gave to his class the use of his library.

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Home-keeping youths have ever homely wits," is as true of the student who has read little as of the untravelled. Books are the world of the student, and he who has not made good use of them while a student will be apt to turn out a mere academical mental instrument. It may be a highly polished and well perfected one, but one which the possessor knows not how to use, or sees the necessity for using. For if he lack a wider acquaintance with those giants of humanity whose thoughts govern the world's mind, than what is contemplated in an academical course, he will be apt to lack the means wherewithal truly to gauge his own knowledge, and will fail of those great mind-born incentives to research and labour which stir up the thoughts of man from the foundation. He will be apt, indeed, to look upon his academical career as the highest aim of his intellectual life, and not the means to a higher life; to regard as the culmination of his mental training what should be simply the foundation of his own self-dependent efforts of research. In Mr. Paisley's library we deem that Cullen laid the groundwork of his after fame.

Blest

Is he whose heart is the home of the great dead,
And their great thoughts."

During his student life Cullen was noted for great diligence, and an active observation. If, when in conversation with his fellow-students, any subject was introduced with which he was imperfectly acquainted, he would take little share in the conversation; but if, at some future period, the subject were again broached, he would show that in the meantime he had gained an accurate familiarity with it in all its details. A disposition of this kind lets few things escape it; hence we are not surprised to find during the course of Cullen's life, that he manifested an intimate knowledge of many subjects.

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Very early in his medical career he had directed his attention particularly to the subject of Materia Medica, and when studying at the University of Edinburgh, he, along with other students of congenial habits, formed a society for mutual improvement, which proved the foundation of the Medical Society of that city. After leaving Edinburgh and commencing the practice of his profession at Hamilton, he devoted considerable attention to the study of general literature and philosophy, and about the same period, being much addicted to study," as he himself says, he began to review the system of medicine then taught in Scotland. Indeed, during his several years' residence at Hamilton, he devoted himself unremittingly to a critical study of medicine and the collateral sciences, as well as to the actual practice of his profession; and there first were developed those medical notions, as well as that exact acquaintance with disease, which many years afterwards caused his name to become so celebrated as a philosophical physician, and a teacher. At this period of his life, he pursued his researches in physical science experimentally as well as theoretically, and he collected a library containing a number of the most rare and valuable books on medicine. After this probation of severe study and observation, he removed to Glasgow, and very shortly after taking up his residence there, he commenced lecturing on the Theory and Practice of Medicine in the University; and subsequently he lectured also upon Materia Medica and Chemistry, delivering the Physic and Chemistry lectures annually, until, in 1755, he was appointed to the chair of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh

When Cullen took up his abode in Glasgow, the medical curriculum of the University was very imperfectly carried out, and it was Cullen's ambition to found at Glasgow a medical school similar to that which had been already establishel at Edinburgh. To achieve this aim he laboured with characteristic diligence and ardour, until he removed to Edinburgh.

The readiness of apprehension, retentiveness of memory, and energy of disposition which had distinguished Cullen as a boy, characterized him also as a man; but, matured by persistent study,

these qualities were manifested by great accuracy of observation, clearness of perception, precision in reasoning, and soundness of judgment. Whether as the medical practitioner, the magistrate, or the professor, he was the same energetic, precise, clear-headed man. As a doctor he early inspired unbounded confidence; as a magistrate he was much looked up to from the minute knowledge he displayed of rural and agricultural affairs, and from the activity he showed in local improvements; and as a professor, his facility of diction, aptitude of description, and above all his admirable method of tuition, quickly secured the admiration of students, and cannot well be surpassed.

At the very outset of his professorial duties he cast aside the effete scholasticism which hung about the academical medical tuition of the period, and addressed himself to the task of conveying in the clearest modes the truths which he had to teach. He laid aside Latin, then the received language for conveying scientific instruction, and adopted the vernacular, delivering his lectures from notes. In the first lecture he gave in the University of Glasgow, he remarked, "written lectures might be more correct in the diction and fluent in the style, but they would have taken up too much time, that may be rendered otherwise useful. I shall be as correct as possible, but perhaps a familiar style will prove more agreeable than a formal one, and the delivery most fitted to command attention."

The great feature of his lectures was the mode in which he laid before the students his own peculiarly careful but sagacious habits of thought. Every stage of the processes by which he had arrived at this or that conclusion was fully set forth, every word clearly defined, every fact or theory methodically arranged; so that each series of lectures constituted not merely a course of tuition in the principles of this or that science, but an invaluable practical illustration of the right mode of thinking. His teaching was free from oracular dogmatism, and consisted mainly in the submission of facts, theories, and opinions to the students the value of which it might rest with them to demonstrate or controvert. Hence the doubtful points were carefully noted, and a method of testing clearly indicated. He, indeed, spoke and wrote as he had thought. His lectures were an appeal to the students' reason rather than their memory. To comprehend the lecturer, it was necessary to think after him, and thus, while the most certain facts of medicine and the collateral sciences were taught by Cullen, he aroused the reflective powers of his hearers, which course, while it raised them in their own estimation, gave birth to a healthy emulation in their studies, and to an attachment towards their teacher which brightens the whole course of his history.

It is impossible to depict Cullen except in his own words, and

from the wealth of illustrations contained in his writings and works we shall endeavour to cull sufficient to exhibit his habits of thought.

Let us look upon him first in the chair of Chemistry, the philosophy of which lay almost entirely unexplored when Cullen began to teach. To quote his own story of the position of this science at the time :

'Chemistry is an art that has furnished the world with a great number of useful facts, and has thereby contributed to the improvement of many arts; but these facts lie scattered in many different books, involved in obscure terms, mixed with many falsehoods, and joined to a great deal of false philosophy; so that it is no great wonder that chemistry has not been so much studied as might have been expected with regard to so useful a branch of knowledge, and that many professors are themselves but very superficially acquainted with it. But it was particularly to be expected, that, since it has been taught in universities, the difficulties in this study should have been in some measure removed; that the art should have been put into form, and a system of it attempted, the scattered facts collected and arranged in a proper order. But this has not yet been done; chemistry has not yet been taught but upon a narrow plan. The teachers of it have still confined themselves to the purposes of pharmacy and medicine, and that comprehends a small branch of chemistry, and even that, by being a single branch, could not by itself be tolerably explained. I do not choose the invidious task of derogating from established reputations, but, were it necessary, I could easily show that the most celebrated attempts towards a system or course of chemistry are extremely incomplete, as examining but a few of the objects of chemistry; that of those examined a very scanty and imperfect account of their relations to other bodies is given, and that even what is given is in a method inconvenient and faulty."

The desire to reduce the facts with which he had to deal to a methodic and comprehensive plan, not only as the most philosophical course, but as the one best facilitating study and research, was one of the most marked of Cullen's habits of thought. It was the reflection, moreover, of a deep belief in the uniformity of the laws governing every portion of the realm of nature, and by his systematic arrangements he sought an approximate expression to these laws. Yet to himself, as to his students, he never for a moment concealed the fact that the method of arrangement which he adopted did not terminate, but simply aided research. Several years subsequent to the delivery of the lecture from which the foregoing paragraph is quoted, he said to his class:

"After teaching for so many years, it might be supposed that my plan was exactly fixed and sufficiently known: but truly I am yet far from being satisfied with the perfection of my plan, and very certain