statute.'

In this sentence the implied reference gives too much trouble to the reader. In the following the implied reference is, in each case, easy and therefore allowable.

(h) 'He expected to be condemned to death; he even desired it' (it=to be condemned to death).

(i) He broke the rules and was punished for it' (it breaking the rules).

The pronoun 'it' often has a forward or anticipative reference, as:

'It is good that I was afflicted,' where 'it' represents 'that I was afflicted.'

THIS AND THAT AS PRONOUNS

EXAMPLES

(a) This is good, but that is better.'

Their

When 'this' and 'that' are so used, 'this' refers to the nearer and 'that' to the more remote thing spoken of. plural forms these and those are used in the same way, as : 'These are yours and those are mine.'

(b) 'Some place the bliss in action, some in ease,
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these.'

'Those' refers to the more remote 'some,' the people that place the bliss in action; 'these' refers to the nearer 'some,' the people that place the bliss in ease.

In prose other pronominal couples, as they are called, might be substituted for 'those' and 'these,' as:

1. The former find their pleasure in action, and the latter theirs in ease.'

2.

The first find their pleasure in action, and the second (or the last) theirs in ease.'

(c) 'Virtue and vice are before you; this leads to misery, that to peace' (this vice, that virtue).

VARIATIONS OF (c)

1. 'Virtue and vice are before you; the one (the first named, virtue) leads to peace, the other (=vice) to misery.'

2. 'Virtue and vice are before you; the former leads to peace, the latter to misery.'

3. 'Virtue and vice are before you; the first leads to peace, the second

(or the last) to misery.'

(d) 'Both international and municipal law were in favour of Charles; he was a prisoner of war by the former, a king by the latter' ('the former' = international law, 'the latter' municipal law).

VARIATIONS OF (d)

he was a prisoner of war by the one, a king by the other.' he was a prisoner of war by that, a king by this.'

3.

6

he was a prisoner of war by the first, a king by the second (or the last).'

'That' with its plural 'those' followed by 'of' is often substituted for a noun: 'that of,' 'those of?'

EXAMPLES

(a)

=

'The influence of Becket rivalled the influence of the king.'

The influence of Becket rivalled that of the king.

= Becket's influence rivalled the king's.

(b) The poetry of Milton differs from the poetry of Dante.' =The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante.

=Milton's poetry differs from Dante's.

(c) The preface is the preface of a man firm in his own religious opinions and tolerant towards the religious opinions of others.'

=The preface is that of a man firm in his own religious opinions and tolerant towards those of others (those not opinions, but religious opinions).

Before writing 'that' or 'those' in this construction, mentally substitute the noun (or the noun with its adjunct) for which it is intended to stand; if you cannot do so readily, do not use the pronoun. Had the writer of the following sentence tried this mental substitution of the noun for the pronoun, he would have adopted another construction :

'Another mode of spending the leisure time is that of books.'

The only possible subject of reference is 'mode'; substituting 'mode' for 'that' we have:

'Another mode of spending the leisure time is the mode of books,' which is nonsense.

The following sentence exemplifies three of the foregoing constructions:

'Every kind of affectation is to be found on the other side of the Channel-the soldier's and the sportsman's, that of the dandy and that of the man who is "used up," the affectation of fashion and the affectation of Liberty Hall.'

ONE AS A PRONOUN

EXAMPLES

(a) One should control one's feelings.'

Be careful not to write :

'One should control his feelings.'

(b) These are trifles that one gets used to, and in fact one would hardly think oneself in the tropics without them.'

ANTICIPATORY USE OF PRONOUNS

EXAMPLES

(a) As soon as they had finished their repast, the young people rose from the table.'

Here 'they' looks forward to 'young people.'

The usual construction is:

'As soon as the young people had finished their repast, they rose from the table.'

(b) When he saw his error, the boy at once corrected it.'

When the boy saw his error, he at once corrected it.

EXERCISE VII

1. Refer to their antecedents the demonstrative pronouns used in one or more of your reading lessons.

2. Point out the faults of pronominal reference in the following:

(1) Metissa brought with her an old maid recommended by her mother, who taught her all the arts of domestic management. They soon invented one reason or another to quarrel with all my servants, and either prevailed on me to turn them away or treated them so ill that they left me of themselves, and they always supplied their places with some brought from my wife's family. (2) Adversity gives wisdom; it ought to be greatly prized. (3) The wind blew down the wall; it was very high. (4) The Emperor Alexander presented to the Emperor William a portrait of himself.

(5) He allowed his brother to take his place for a short time, and for that short time he was a constant source of annoyance. (6) Mr. A. presents his compliments to Mr. B. I have got a

hat which is not his; if he have got a hat which is not yours, no doubt they are the missing ones.

(7) The lad cannot leave his father, for if he should leave him he would die.

(8) And it came to pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote in the camp of the Assyrians one hundred fourscore and five thousand; and, when they arose early in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses.

(9) At the lower end of the hall is a large otter's skin stuffed with hay, which Sir Roger's mother ordered to be hung up in that manner, and the knight looks upon it with great satisfaction, because it seems he was but nine years old when his dog killed him.

(10) The grand jury found true bills against the agitators; and, although they threw every obstacle in the way of the proceedings, they were successfully carried through.

3. Substitute other pronominal couples for those used in the following sentences:

It is open to us to fight or to retreat; this is a disgrace, that is madness. Two treaties were drawn up; one on white paper, the other on red, the former real, the latter fictitious. I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth; the one I consider as an act, the other as a habit of the mind. I admit discussion on every matter except dinner and debts; I hold that the first must be eaten and the second must be paid. He knew both Francis and Hastings; the former he mistrusted, the latter he hated. I will not barter English commerce for Irish slavery; that is not the price I would pay, nor is this the thing I would purchase.

4. In each of the following sentences substitute the noun for the pronoun that or those :

His claim was no better founded than that of Catherine or that of the Bonaparte family in Spain. The style of Frances bears a strong resemblance to that of Junius. It was safer to

take the part of Hastings in a minority than that of Francis in a majority. The poems of Tennyson are more widely read

The manners of the Britons differed
The men and the horses were more
Sir John Malcolm com-

than those of Wordsworth.
from those of the Romans.
powerful than those of the Carnatic.

C

pares the conduct of Clive with that of the Duke of Wellington. His power far surpassed that which Dupleix had attained.

5. Write the following sentences in as many equivalent. forms as you can:

son.

The eloquence of Cicero was superior to the eloquence of Cæsar. The poems of Dryden differ from the poems of TennyThe conduct of Hastings was more manly than the conduct of his rival. The writings of Macaulay are more brilliant than the writings of Alison. Less is known of the life of Shakespeare than of the life of Milton. The conduct of Impey was more disgraceful than the conduct of Hastings. The influence of the king outweighed the influence of his minister. The light of the sun is more brilliant than the light of the moon. The career of Wellington was more honourable than the career of Napoleon.

ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS

The assertion made by the predicate is generally qualified by circumstances of time, of place, of manner, or of cause. The words added to the predicate to specify these circumstances are called qualifying, or limiting, or modifying adjuncts to the predicate. They are also called extensions of the predicate. These adjuncts consist more frequently of prepositional phrases than of single words, and no small part of the art of composition lies in the setting of such phrases in the sentence.

I. ADJUNCTS OF TIME

(a) 'My father came yesterday."}:

started at

Point of time.

(c) 'The lecture lasted three hours.'

(a) I was present during the whole day.' }

Duration of time.

(e) The postman comes twice a day.' Repetition of time.