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Christianity and the means of grace, indefinitely expands the sphere of revelation, and carries the saving power of Christ, even in this present life, into the regions of heathen darkness. It must consistently regard all virtuous and pious heathen as unconscious Christians, who, like the Athenians of old, 'unknowingly' worship an 'unknown God.' Justin Martyr, the first Christian philosopher, advanced the idea that the 'Logos spermaticos,' i.e., the Eternal Word of God, before his incarnation, scattered the divine seed of truth and righteousness among the Greeks as well as the Jews. Zwingli taught the salvation of many heathen and of all children dying in infancy. But these were isolated private opinions; the doctrinal standards of the orthodox ChurchesGreek, Latin, and Protestant-know of no Christ and no salvation outside of Christendom and without the written or preached gospel. The Quakers teach the absolute universality, not indeed of salvation, but of the offer and the opportunity of salvation.

This doctrine is the corner-stone of their system. It is the source of their democracy, their philanthropy, their concern for the lowest and most neglected classes of society, their opposition to slavery, war, and violence, their meekness under suffering, their calmness and serenity of temper. But the same doctrine explains also their comparative disregard of the written Scriptures, the visible Church, the ministry, the means of grace, the forms of worship, and their indifference to heathen missions. There is, however, more recently among orthodox Friends a growing disposition to aid in the circulation of the Bible, the work of foreign missions, and to associate with evangelical Christians of other Churches.

BARCLAY'S THESES.

Barclay reduces the doctrinal system of the Friends to fifteen propositions or theological theses, which are briefly as follows:2

1. The Foundation of Knowledge. The height of happiness is in the true knowledge of God and of Jesus Christ (John xvii. 3).

2. Immediate Revelation. This comes from the Son of God (Matt. xi. 27) through the testimony of the Spirit.

This is the inner light which has already been sufficiently explained.

Hence their name, 'Professors of the Light,'' Friends of Light,' 'Children of Light.' See them in full, Vol. III. p. 749.

3. The Holy Scriptures.-They contain the revelations of the Spirit of God to the saints. They are a declaration of the fountain, but not the fountain itself; they are the secondary rule of faith and morals, subordinate to the Spirit from which they derive all their excellency and certainty (John xvi. 13).

4. The Condition of Man after the Fall.-All men are by nature fallen, degenerated, and spiritually dead, but hereditary sin is not imputed to infants until they make it their own by actual transgression. Socinianism and Pelagianism are rejected, but also the doctrine of the 'Papists and most Protestants,' that a man without the grace of God may be a true minister of the gospel.

5. Universal Redemption by Christ.-God wills all men to be saved; Christ died for all men; the light is sent to every man for salvation, if not resisted.

On this point the Quakers side with Lutherans and Arminians against Calvinists, but go far beyond them.

6. Objections to the universality of redemption refuted.

7. Justification.-Man is regenerated and justified when he receives the inner light. It is not by our works that we are justified, but by Christ who is both the gift and the giver, and the cause producing the effects in us.

The Quakers closely connect justification with sanctification, and approach the Roman view, with this difference, that they teach justification in our works, not on account of our works. Penn distinguishes between legal justification, that is, the forgiveness of past sins through Christ, the alone propitiation, and moral justification or sanctification, whereby man is made inwardly just through the cleansing and sanctifying power and Spirit of Christ.

8. Perfection.-Man may become free from actual sinning, and so far perfect; yet perfection admits of growth, and there remains a possibility of sinning.'

The Methodists have substantially adopted this view, and call it entire consecration or perfect love.

9. Perseverance.-Those who resist the light, or disobey it after re

1 Penn (Preface to Fox's Journal, p. xiv.) says that the Friends 'never held a perfection in wisdom and glory in this life, or from infirmities or death, as some have with a weak or ill mind imagined and insinuated against them.'

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ceiving it, fall away (Heb. vi. 4-6; Tim. i. 6); but it is possible in this life to attain such a stability in the truth from which there can be no total apostasy.

This is a compromise between Calvinism and Arminianism.

10. The Ministry.-Those and only those are qualified ministers of the gospel who are illuminated and called by the Spirit, whether male or female, whether learned or unlearned. These ought to preach without hire or bargaining (Matt. x. 8), although they may receive a voluntary temporal support from the people to whom they administer in spiritual things.

11. Worship. It consists in the inward and immediate moving and drawing of the Spirit, which is neither limited to places or times or persons. All other worship which man appoints and can begin and end at his pleasure is superstition, will-worship, and idolatry.

All forms and even sacred music are excluded from the naked spiritualism of Quaker worship. It is simply reverent communion of the soul with God, uttered or silent. I once attended a Quaker meeting in London whose solemn silence was more impressive than many a sermon. I felt the force of the word, 'There was silence in heaven for the space of half an hour.' At another meeting I heard one man and several women exhort and pray in a tremulous voice and with reverential awe, as if in the immediate presence of the great Jehovah. All depends upon the power of the Holy Spirit.

12. Baptism.-It is a pure and spiritual thing, a baptism of the Spirit and of fire,' by which we are purged from sin (1 Pet. iii. 21 ; Rom. vi. 4; Col. ii. 12; Gal. iii. 27; John iii. 30). Of this the waterbaptism of John was a figure commanded for a time. The baptism of infants is a human tradition, without Scripture precept or practice.

13. The Communion of the Body and Blood of Christ is likewise inward and spiritual, of which the breaking of bread at the last Supper was a figure. It was used for a time, for the sake of the weak, even by those who had received the substance, as the washing of feet and the anointing of the sick with oil was practiced; all which are only the shadows of better things. (John vi. 32-35; 1 Cor. x. 16, 17.)

This doctrine of the sacraments is a serious departure from the universal consensus of Christendom and the obvious intention of our Saviour. It can only be accounted for as a protest against the op

posite extreme, which substitutes the visible sign for the invisible grace.

14. The Power of the Civil Magistrate.-It does not extend over the conscience, which God alone can instruct and govern, provided always that no man under pretense of conscience do any thing destructive to the rights of others and the peace of society. All civil punishments for matters of conscience proceed from the spirit of Cain the murderer.

Here the Quakers, like the Baptists, commit themselves most unequivocally to the doctrine of universal religious liberty as a part of their creed.

15. Salutations and Recreations.-Under this head are forbidden the taking off the hat to a man, the bowings and cringings of the body, and 'all the foolish or superstitious formalities' which feed pride and vanity and belong to the vain pomp and glory of this world; also all unprofitable and frivolous plays and recreations which divert the mind from the fear of God, from sobriety and gravity. Penn said of Fox that he was 'civil beyond all forms of breeding.'

The Apology of Barclay is a commentary on these propositions.

NOTE. THE HICKSITES.-In the year 1827 a schism took place among the Friends in Philadelphia, and extended to most of the yearly meetings in America, but had no influence in England. Since then the Quakers are divided into 'orthodox' Quakers and ‘Hicksites,' although the latter refuse to be called by any other name but that of 'Friends' or 'Quakers.' The founder of this rupture was ELIAS HICKS, born in Hempstead, Long Island, March 19, 1768; died in Jericho, N. Y., Feb. 27, 1830.

He took strong ground against slavery, and abstained from all participation in the fruits of slave labor. He was for a long time an acceptable preacher, but early in the present century he advocated radical Unitarian and other heterodox doctrines, which shocked the majority of the Quakers and led to commotion, censure, and schism. The first separation took place in the Yearly Meeting at Philadelphia, and then a similar one in New York, Baltimore, Ohio, and Indiana. Many espoused the cause of Hicks, in the interest of religious liberty and progress, without indorsing his heretical opinions on the articles of the Trinity, the divinity, and the atonement of Christ.

The extreme left of the Hicksites broke off in 1853 in Chester County, Pa., and organized a separate party under the name of Progressive Friends. They opened the door to all who ecognize the equal brotherhood of the human family, without regard to sex, color, or condidion, and engage in works of beneficence and charity. They disclaim all creeds and disciplinary authority, and are opposed to every form of ecclesiasticism.

The Hicksite movement drove the orthodox Quakers more closely to the Scriptures, and called forth several official counter-demonstrations.

On the 'Hicksite' Quakers, see ELIAS HICKS, Journal of his Life and Labors, and his Sermons, Phila. 1828; and JANNEY (a Hicksite), History of the Society of Friends, Vol. IV.

§ 108. THE MORAVIANS.

See the Literature on the Bohemian Brethren, § 75, p. 565, and the Waldenses, p. 568.

DOCTRINAL AND CONFESSIONAL.

I. ZINZENDORF: Ein und zwanzig Discourse über die Augsburgische Confession, 1747-1748 (never published through the trade, and therefore rare). Also the other writings of Zinzendorf, and especially his hymns and spiritual poems, collected and published by Albert KnAPP, with a spirited sketch of his life and character (Stuttg. 1845).

AUG. GOTTLIEB Spangenberg: Idea Fidei Fratrum oder Kurzer Begriff der christlichen Lehre in den evang. Brüdergemeinen. Barby, 1778, 1782; Gnadau, 1833; English ed. Lond. 1784. Accepted as authority. By the same: Declaration über die zeither geyen uns ausgegangenen Beschuldigungen. Berlin, 1772. HERMANN PLITT (Pres. of the Morav. Theol. Seminary in Gnadenfeld): Evangelische Glaubenslehre nach Schrift und Erfahrung. Gotha, 1864, 2 vols. Not authoritative. By the same: Zinzendorf's Theologie. Gotha, 1869–1874, 3 vols.

The hymns and liturgies of the Moravian Church.

EDM. DE SCHWEINITZ (Morav. Bishop): The Moravian Manual. Publ. by authority of the Synod. 2d enlarged ed. Bethlehem, Pa. 1869.

II. Among the early opponents of the Moravians we mention FRESENIUS, Fabricius, GeoRGIUS, and the celebrated commentator, J. A. BENGEL (Abriss der sogen. Brüdergemeinde, in welchem die Lehre und die ganze Sache geprüft, das Gute und Böse dabei unterschieden, etc. Stuttg. 1751; republ. Berlin, 1859). III. Modern representations by divines not of the Moravian Church.

MÖHLER: Symbolik, pp. 533 sqq.; SCHNECKENBURGER: Vorlesungen über die kleineren protest. Kirchenparteien, pp. 152–171; R. HOFMANN: Symbolik, pp. 533 sqq.

I. Biographies of Count Zinzendorf.

HISTORICAL.

SPANGENBERG: Leben des Grafen Zinzendorf. Barby, 1772-1775, 8 vols. Thorough, reliable, and

prolix.

J. G. MÜLLER (brother of the Swiss historian, John von M.): Bekenntnisse merkwürdiger Männer von sich selbst. 3 vols. 1775.

L. C. VON SCHRAUTENBACH: Der Graf v. Zinz. und die Brüdergemeinde seiner Zeit, herausgeg. v. F. W. Kölbing. Gnadau, 1851. Written in 1782, but not for publication, and kept as MS. in the Archives of the Moravian Church till 1851. One of the most interesting works on Zinzendorf, setting forth the philosophy of his religion.

VARNHAGEN VON ENSE: Leben Zinzendorf's. Berlin, 1830; 2d ed. 1846. The view of an outsider, similar to Southey's Life of Wesley.

J. W. VERBECK: Gr. Zinzendorf's Leben und Charakter. Gnadau, 1845. An extract from Spangenberg. F. BOVET: Le Comte de Zinzendorf. Paris, 1860.

G. BURKHARDT: Zinzendorf und die Brüdergemeinde, in Herzog's Real-Encykl. Vol. XVIII. pp. 508–592 (Gotha, 1864), and published as a separate volume.

II. Histories of the Moravian Church.

Many MS. sources in the Archives of Herrnhut, Saxony, especially the 'Lissa Folios,' relating to the history of the Ancient Bohemian and Moravian Church; the 'Diarium der Gemeinde zu Herrnhut' down to 1736; the journals and letters of Zinzendorf; and the history both of the Ancient and Renewed Church, by John Plitt, from 1722 to 1836, in 9 vols.

The Büding'sche Sammlung. Büdingen and Leipzig, 1742-1744, 3 vols. A collection of documents. The Barby'sche Sammlung. Barby, 1760, 2 vols. A continuation of the former.

DAVID CRANZ: Alte und neue Brüderhistorie (down to 1769). Barby, 1772; continued by HEGNER, in 3 parts, 1791-1816. Engl. transl. by La Trobe, London, 1750.

Die Gedenktage der erneuerten Brüderkirche (Memorial Days of the Renewed Brethren's Church). Gnadau, 1820.

Bp. HOLMES: History of the United Brethren. Lond. 1825, 2 vols.

A. Bost: Histoire de l'Église des Frères de Bohème et Moravie. Paris, 1844, 2 vols. Abridged English transl. publ. by the Relig. Tract Soc. of London, 1848.

Bp. E. W. CRÖGER: Geschichte der erneuerten Brüderkirche (down to 1822). Gnadau, 1852-1854, 3 vols. (The same wrote also a Geschichte der alten Brüderkirche. Gnadau, 1865 and 1866, 2 vols.)

VERBEEK: Geschichte der alten und neuen Brüder-Unität. Gnadau, 1857.

H. PLITT: Die Gemeine Gottes in ihrem Geiste und ihren Formen mit Beziehung auf die Brüdergemeine. Gotha, 1859.

Dr. NITZSCH: Kirchengeschichtliche Bedeutung der Brüdergemeinde. Berlin, 1853.

MISSIONARY.

The missionary literature of the Moravians is very large and important, and embraces the works of CRANZ on Greenland (1767); Oldendorp (1777) on Danish Missions; HEOKEWELDER (1817) on Indian

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