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quently acquired by adoption. By the gift or munificence of the sovereign, a person bears his own coat together with the new ensigns of honour.

SHIELD. See Escocheon.

SIRE was a title in France given to the king as a mark of sovereignty: he was thus addressed in epistles and discourses. Sire was antiently used in the same sense with sieur and seigneur, and applied to barons, gentlemen, and citizens. Sieur having been a title of honour among the Freuch, the lawyers would say, I plead for the sieur marquis, the sieur abbot, &c. for sieur often expressed seignory, or lordship.

STADTHOLDER, a title formerly given to the governor or lieutenant of a province in the United Netherlands; particularly that of Holland, where the word has been chiefly used. It is derived from the word stadt, state; and houlder, holding, which is, lieutenant of the states.

The stadtholder was considered the first member of the.. republic, and chief of all the courts of justice. All sentences and judgments were despatched in his name; and when an office became vacant in any of the courts, the states proposed three persons to the stadtholder, who chose one of them. He could pardon criminals, had the choice of chief magistrates in each city; and the power to cashier masters, and put others in their room. He was arbiter of all differences that arose between the several provinces, or between the cities and members of the states of any province. The office of stadtholder is very antient; the counts not being able to reside in Holland, appointed stadtholders to command in their absence. William I. prince of Orange, was stadtholder of Holland and Zealand at the time the Dutch shook off the Spanish yoke.

SULTAN, a title given to the emperor of the Turks, which had its rise under Mahmoud. The word is Turkish, and signifies king of kings, and was first given to the Turkish princes about 1055. The title has been used ever since this time, by all Mohammedan princes. The highest officer, among the Turks, next to the sultan, is the grand vizier, who has the care of the whole empire. He lives in the utmost splendour, and has more than two thousand officers and domestics in his palace.

SUPPORTERS, are figures by the side of a shield, ap

pearing as if they actually held it erect. They use chiefly figures of beasts: figures of human creatures for the like purpose, are called tenants. In England, none under the degree of banneret are allowed supporters, which are restrained to those called the high nobility.

THANE, was a dignity among the English, or AngloSaxons. Soon after the conquest the name was disused, and instead, that of king's barons was used. Their origin is referred to king Canute, who taking the chief of the Danish nobility, to the number of 3000, for his guard called them thing-lethe, from two Danish words, theing or thein, both of nobility, and lith, order of battle. In old English authors, thane signifies a nobleman; sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate.

VISCOUNT is used for a degree of nobility, next below a count or earl, and above a baron. It is supposed to have been brought hither by the Normans. The coronet of a viscount is surrounded with pearls only.

WREATH. A roll of silk, of two colours, blazoned on the shield, and laid on the helmet, as a support to the crest.

Select Books on Heraldry.

Porney's Elements of Heraldry, 8vo. Memoirs of Antient Chivalry, from the French of M. de St. Palaye, 8vo. a very entertaining work. Brydson's Heraldry, 8vo. As valuable and useful books of reference, the following may be named:-Gwillim's Heraldry, fol. Edmonson's Complete Body of Heraldry, 2 vols. fol. Collins' Peerage, by 'Sir S. E. Brydges, 9 vols. 8vo. Biographical Peerage, by Sir S. E. Brydges, 3 vols. 12mo. Cruise on Dignities and Titles of Honour, 8vo. an interesting and learned work.

PART V.-Manufactures.

A MANUFACTURE is a commodity produced from raw or natural materials, either by the work of the hand, or by machinery. Manufactures had begun to flourish in different parts of Europe, long before they were attempted in Britain; the few articles of this description, being obtained in exchange for wool, hides, tin, or such other produce, as the uncultivated state of the country would supply. In 1337, a law passed, prohibiting the exportation of wool, the wearing of any but English cloth, and inviting foreign cloth-workers to settle in England. Before this time, the English were little more than shepherds and wool-sellers. Since the regular establishment of manufactories in this country, the progress of improvement bas, in most instances, been remarkably great. success may justly be attributed to the liberty of the subject-the practical application of the important doctrine of the subdivision of labour-the increased knowledge of the properties of varicus uraterials--the vast improvements in all kinds of machinery--and the great capitals invested in the different branches.

This

Chemistry has contributed powerfully to the improvement of manufactures. By the aid of this science the enlightened artist is enabled to investigate the different processes of his manufacture, and to examine, by analysis, the nature of the materials he employs. By these means his art is reduced to principles-his operations simplified -his processes accelerated, and his labour shortened.

The accounts, hitherto given, of manufactures, are in many respects extremely erroneous. Those which are now presented to our readers, have been rendered as accurate as possible; not contented with printed information, we have, in a great variety of instances, availed our selves of the observations of practical men. Some of the articles have been submitted to extensive manufacturers for their correction; while others have been described from personal inspection.

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In treating of the different manufactures, our attention will not be confined to those strictly so called, but an explanation will be given of many articles that have undergone a material change in their properties, and which the occurrences of every day present to the notice, or claim the observation and scrutiny of youth. Facility of reference being an indispensable object in this department of the work, an alphabetical arrangement has been adopted.

ALCOHOL; Commonly called spirit of wine, is obtained by distillation in a state more ardent and purified than that article. Spirit of wine is procured by distilling farinaceous or saccharine roots, as well as the pulpy fruit of vegetables it is purified by repeated rectification, and is called alcohol when divested of its aqueous particles. It is chiefly employed in preparing varnishes, in dissolving gum-resins, and for various other purposes in medicine. The antiseptic power of alcohol renders it valuable in preserving anatomical preparations of different parts of the body. It is also used for burning in lamps on account of the steady and uniform heat which it gives during combustion. See Brandy.

ALE. See Brewing.

ANCHOVY-FISHERY. See Fishery.

ARRACK; a spirituous liquor imported from the East Indies, principally from Goa and Batavia, and used either as a cordial or an ingredient in punch. It is obtained by distillation from rice or sugar, fermented with cocoa-nut juice. At Goa there are three species of arrack, the single, double, and treble distilled. The double is generally preferred on account of its peculiar flavour. A spirituous liquor, called koumiss, is also extracted by the Tartars from mares' milk, which is first suffered to turn sour, and afterwards distilled two or three times between two close earthen pots, from which it runs through a small wooden pipe. This liquor is possessed of the most intoxicating qualities.

ASSAYING. There are two kinds of assaying; the one before metals are melted, the other after they are struck; the first is to bring them to their proper fineness, and the last to see that they are standard. For the first the assayers used to take 14 or 15 grains of gold and half a

dram of silver, if it be for money, and 18 grains of the one and a dram of the other, if for other uses. The second assay is made of one of the pieces of money, which is cut into four parts. The quantity of gold for an assay is here six grains. Assaying is also the particular mode of examining every ore or mixed metal according to its nature with the proper fluxes, in order to discover not only what metals and the proportions of them, are contained in ores, but also the quantity of sulphur, vitriol, alum, arsenic, and other matters. Gold is obtained pure by dissolving it in nitro-muriatic acid, and precipitating the metal by dropping in a diluted solution of sulphate of iron; the powder which precipitates is pure gold." Silver is obtained pure by dissolving it in nitric acid, and preeipitating it with a diluted solution of sulphate of iron. With metallurgists, the interior or mass is supposed to consist of twenty-four imaginary parts, called carats. Gold of twenty-four carats means pure gold; the number of carats mentioned specifies the parts of pure gold, and what that number wants of twenty-four carats, indicates the quantity of base metal in the alloy. Gold of twelve carats, means twelve parts of gold and twelve of another metal. Gold coins of Great Britain are of twenty-two carats fine; they contain therefore eleven parts of gold and one of copper. Parting is the separation of gold from silver when both are contained in an alloy, and is founded on the insolubility of gold, and solubility of silver in nitric acid. See Coinage.

BLEACHING. Its object is to reduce flax, cotton, wool, or the threads of cloth manufactured from either of these, to a state of perfect whiteness. To obtain this end, oils, metallic oxides, earthy impregnations, resins, and other animal, vegetable, or mineral particles, containing any colouring matter, must be completely discharged from the manufactured substances. The process of bleaching may be divided thus: 1. Steeping and milling. 2. Bucking and boiling. 3. Alternate watering and drying. 4. Souring. 5. Rubbing with soap and warm water. 6. Starching and blueing. 1. Steeping and milling. By this, the cloth is in a considerable degree freed from its superficial foulness, and is rendered softer and more pliant. 2. Bucking and boiling is the most important of the whole; its

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