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of himself; and, when well executed, must needs, by the force of sympathy, impress the reader or hearer very strongly. But, in order to a successful execution, it requires an uncommonly warm imagination, and so happy a selection of circumstances, as shall make us think we see before our eyes the scene that is described.

INTERROGATION. The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, is to ask a question: but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny, with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question, expressing thereby the strongest confidence of the truth of their own sentiment, and appealing to their hearers for the impossibility of the contrary. Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak. "The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"

Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We see this in the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against Cataline: "How long will you, Cataline, abuse our patience? Do you not perceive that your designs are discovered?"—He might indeed have said; "You abuse our patience a long while. You must be sensible that your designs are discovered." But it is easy to perceive, how much this latter mode of expression falls short of the force and vehemence of the former.

EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions of the mind, such as, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. "Wo is me that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!" Psalms.

"O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night, for the slain of the daughter of my people! O that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of way-faring men!" Jeremiah.

Though Interrogations may be introduced into close and earnest reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emotions of the mind. When judiciously employed, they agitate the hearer or the reader with similar passions: but it is extremely improper, and sometimes ridiculous, to use them on trivial occasions, and on mean or low subjects. The unexperienced writer often attempts to elevate his language, by the copious display of this figure: but he rarely or never succeeds. He frequently renders his composition frigid to excess, or absolutely ludicrous, by calling on us to enter into his transports, when nothing is said or done to demand emotion.

IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our VOL. I.

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observations. Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by saying; "You have taken great care indeed." Cicero says of the person against whom he was pleading; "We have great reason to believe that the modest man would not ask him for his debt, when he pursues his life."

Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure; which after having set the inconveniences of a thing, in the clearest light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having beautifully described the noise and tumults of Rome, he adds ironically;

"Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome."

The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds; and this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than serious reasoning. The gravest persons have not declined the use of this figure on proper occasions. The wise and virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his endeavours to discountenance vicious and foolish practices. Even in the sacred writings, we have a remarkable instance of it. The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, "Mocked them, and said: Cry aloud, for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be waked."

Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united: as in Cicero's oration for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, by saying: "O excellent interpreter of the law! master of antiquity! corrector and amender of our constitution!"

The last figure of speech that we shall mention, is what writers call AMPLIFICATION OF CLIMAX. It consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says; "It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name then shall I give to the act of crucifying him?”

Archbishop Tillotson uses this figure very happily, to recommend good and virtuous actions: "After we have practised good actions awhile, they become easy; and when they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them; and when they please us, we do them frequently; and by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit; and confirmed habit is a kind of se cond nature; and so far as any thing is natural, so far it is necessary; and we can hardly do otherwise; nay, we do it many times when we do not think of it."

The following is an example of a beautiful climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in the case of a woman accused of murdering her own child." Gentlemen, if one

man had any how slain another; if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman occasioned the death of her enemy; even these criminals would have been capitally punished by the Cornelian law: but if this guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse, what punishment would not then the mother have demanded? With what cries and exclamations would she have stunned your ears! What shall we say then, when a woman, guilty of homicide, a mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath comprised all those misdeeds in one single crime? a crime, in its own nature, detestable; in a woman, prodigious; in a mother, incredible; and perpetrated against one whose age called for compassion, whose near relation claimed affection, and whose innocence deserved the highest favour."

Amplification is produced by various methods: by ascending from particular to general things; by descending from generals to particulars; by an enumeration of parts; by illustrating a thing from a variety of causes; by exhibiting a number and variety of effects; by gradation; by the circumstances of time, place, manner, event, and the like; and by elucidating things by their opposites.

The blessings and advantages of peace, may be recommended from their opposites, the miseries and calamities of war. Thus Cicero endeavours to throw contempt upon Cataline and his party, by comparing them with the contrary side, as follows,-"But if omitting all these things, with which we abound, and which they want, the senate, the knights, the populace, the city, treasury, revenues, all Italy, the provinces, and foreign nations; if, I say, omitting these things, we compare the causes themselves, in which each side is engaged, we may learn from thence how despicable they are. For on this side modesty is engaged, on that impudence; on this chastity, on that lewdness; on this integrity, on that fraud; on this piety, on that profaneness; on this constancy, on that fickleness; on this honour, on that baseness; on this moderation, on that unbridled passion; in a word, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence, and all virtues, contend with injustice, luxury, cowardice, rashness, and all vices; plenty with want, reason with folly, sobriety with madness, and lastly good hope with despair. In such a contest, did men desert us, would not Heaven ordain, that so many and so great vices should be defeated by these most excellent virtues ?"

As different figures of speech are often blended in the same passage, so the reader will perceive, that, in the preceding

extract, the figure of Amplification comprises that of Antithesis.

We have now finished what was proposed, concerning Perspicuity in single words and phrases, and the accurate construction of sentences. The former has been considered, under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and Precision; and the latter, under those of Clearness, Unity, Strength, and the proper use of Figurative Language. Though many of those attentions which have been recommended, may appear minute, yet their effect upon writing and style, is much greater than might, at first, be imagined. A sentiment which is expressed in accurate language, and in a period, clearly, neatly, and well arranged, always makes a stronger impression on the mind, than one that is expressed inaccurately, or in a feeble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels this upon a comparison and if the effect be sensible in one sentence, how much more in a whole discourse, or composition that is made up of such sentences?

The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in correct language, and in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others. Such a selection and arrangement of words, as do most justice to the sense, and express it to most advantage, make an agreeable and strong impression. To these points have tended all the rules which have been given. Did we always think clearly, and were we, at the same time, fully masters of the language in which we write, there would be occasion for few rules. Our sentences would then, of course, acquire all those properties of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, which have been recommended. For we may rest assured, that whenever we express ourselves ill, besides the mismanagement of language, there is, for the most part, some mistake in our manner of conceiving the subject. Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought. Thought and expression act and re-act upon each other. The understanding and language have a strict connexion; and they who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order; a consideration which alone will recompense the student, for his attention to this branch of literature.

We now proceed to consider the Third Part of our subject, namely, the great principle or standard, by which the propriety of language is ascertained and determined.

PART III.

OF PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY OF
EXPRESSION,

With respect to the Great Principle, which, on all occasions, decides the propriety of language.

AMIDST the diversity and fluctuation of sentiment, respecting the correctness of language and the true idiom of our tongue, which are so frequently found to prevail amongst writers and critics, the student will naturally wish to be directed to some authority and standard, by which his doubts may, on most, if not all occasions, be removed, and the propriety of his literary compositions ascertained. This principle or standard, is reputable, national, and present use.

In the course of our grammatical labours, we have occasionally referred, or alluded, to this standard: but the nature and importance of it require a more extensive and particular examination. A proper view of the subject involves, indeed, much critical discussion, and many necessary cautions, rules, and distinctions. But though the execution of such a work, is a delicate and arduous task, it has been happily accomplished by the learned and ingenious Doctor Campbell, in his "Philosophy of Rhetoric." We shall therefore, availing ourselves of his labours, produce a copious extract (with some additions and alterations) from what he has written on the subject; which we hope will afford the ingenious student complete satisfaction.

CHAPTER I.

The nature and characters of the use which gives law to language.

EVERY tongue whatever is founded in use or custom,

"Whose arbitrary sway

Words and the forms of language must obey." * FRANCIS.

Language is purely a species of fashion, (for this holds equally of every tongue,) in which, by the general, but tacit consent

"Usus

Quem penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." HORACE.

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