tations, occult spiritual meanings. Those who desire to become acquainted with this exegetical art, may consult the Moral Mirror of the whole scriptures, by Vitalis a Furno, or the Psalter spiritualized, by Ludolphus Saxo. The philosophic divines, who commented on the scriptures, often proposed, and scientifically resolved, questions of the most profound erudition, according to the views of that age.

§ 3. In explaining and inculcating the doctrines of religion, most of the Greeks and Latins followed the principles of the Peripatetic philosophy. And the Greeks, by their intercourse with the Latins, seem to have become acquainted with the modes of teaching adopted in the schools of the Latins. The Greeks now read Thomas Aquinas, and other distinguished scholastics, in their own language'; Demetrius Cydonius, and others, having in this age translated them from Latin into Greek. The Latins who adopted this mode of theologizing, were immensely numerous; the most distinguished of them for acumen, were John Scotus, Durand a St. Porçain, William Occam, and a few others. Here and there an individual, also, applied the light of scripture and of tradition to the explanation of divine truth; but these were overpowered and nearly silenced, by the immense throng of the dialecticians.

§ 4. Yet there were not wanting pious and good men, not only among the mystics, but others likewise, who censured this bold manner of philosophizing on religious subjects; and who endeavoured to draw the attention of students in theology, to the holy scriptures, and to the writings of the ancient fathers. Hence there were fierce disputes, every where, but especially in the more distinguished universities, as those of Paris and Oxford, between the biblical theologians and the philosophical. The biblical party, though greatly inferior in numbers, sometimes gained the victory. For the philosophical divines, the most eminent of whom were mendicant monks, Dominicans and Franciscans, by philosophizing indiscreetly, not unfrequently so distorted and misrepresented the principal doctrines of revealed religion, as to subvert them, and to advance opinions manifestly impious and absurd. The consequence was, that

2 Rich. Simon, Créance de l'Eglise Orientale sur la Transubstantiation, p. 166.

some had to abjure their errors; others sought their safety by flight; the books of some were publicly burnt; others were thrown into prison. But as soon as the storm subsided, most of them returned to their former views, and oppressed their adversaries by various arts, and deprived them of their influence, their profits, and their number of pupils.

§ 5. Moreover, the scholastic doctors, or the philosophical divines, had great controversies among themselves, on various subjects. For these contests, abundant matter was supplied by that very acute man, of the Franciscan order, John Duns Scotus, an Englishman, who being envious of the Dominicans, attacked certain doctrines of Thomas Aquinas, and maintained that they were untrue. The Dominicans united to defend the brother of their order, who was the oracle of the schools; and on the other hand, the Franciscans gathered around Scotus, as a doctor that descended from heaven. Thus the two most powerful orders, the Dominicans and the Franciscans, were again pitted against each other; and those famous sects of the Scotists and Thomists, were produced, which still divide the schools of the Latins. These schools disagree, respecting the nature of divine co-operation, the measure of divine grace necessary to a man's salvation, the unity of form in man, [or personal identity,] and many other subjects, which cannot be here enumerated. But nothing procured Scotus greater glory, than his defence and demonstration, in opposition to the Dominicans, of what is called the immaculate conception of the virgin Mary'.

§ 6. A great multitude of those called mystics, lived and inculcated their doctrines in nearly every country of Europe. Some of these were good men, and lovers of piety, who labour

* See Boulay's Historia Acad. Paris. tom. iv. in many passages. In the year 1340, various opinions of the scholastic tribe, respecting the Trinity and other subjects, were condemned: p. 266. A. d. 1347, M. Jo. de Mercuria and Nic. de Ultricuria had to abjure their opinions, p. 298, 308. A. D. 1348, one Simon was convicted of very great errors, p. 322. A. D. 1354, Guido, an Augustinian, shared the same fate, p. 329; and likewise, A. D. 1362, one

Lewis, p. 374. and Jo. de Calore, p. 377; and, A. D. 1366, Dionys. Soullechat, p. 38. The same scenes took place at Oxford. See Ant. Wood's Antiq. Oxon. tom. i. p. 153. 183, &c.

See Wadding's Annales Minor. tom. vi. p. 52, &c. [The doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary, was, that she herself was miraculously conceived, and born out of the course of nature, so as not to be a partaker of original sin. Tr.]

ed to withdraw the minds of people from ceremonies, to guide them to real virtue and the love of God. Such were, (though not all of them equally wise.) Jo. Tauler, Jo. Ruysbrock, Henry Suso, and Gerhard of Zutphen; who must be acknowledged to have left us a considerable number of writings, suited to awaken pious emotions, and to draw forth the soul towards God; though they all laboured under some infirmity of judgment, and were inclined to indulge their imaginations too far. But there were other mystics, every where active, who were beside themselves, and real fanatics; and who dreamed of an unintelligible extinction of all the powers and faculties of the soul, and a transition of the mind into the divine nature; and they led away their adherents into a senseless kind of piety, that bordered on licentiousness. So great was the extravagance of these people, that the more sober mystics themselves detested their doctrine, and warned their followers against it".

§ 7. Concerning those who gave particular attention to moral theology, it is not necessary to say much; since their merit is of much the same kind with that of those already mentioned. Yet two things may be noticed as illustrative of the state of this branch of theology. First, in this age, a greater number than before, collected and discussed what are called cases of conscience. The most noted of this class, were Astesanus, an Italian, Monaldus, and Bartholomew of St. Concordia. This species of writing accorded well with the education given in the schools; which taught men, not so much what to believe, and how to live, as to query, to dispute, and to wrangle. Secondly, those who treated of the duties men owe to themselves and others, and exhorted to the practice of them, were accustomed to derive arguments and illustrations from the brutes. For they first explained the prominent characteristics of some animal; and then applied them to the life and conduct of men. Of this description are John Nieder's Formicarius,

5 Concerning these, the reader may consult Peter Poiret's Bibliotheca Mysticorum [p. 108, 111, 146. Schl.] and Godfrey Arnold's History and Description of Mystic Theology, [written in German, p. 395, 404, 414, 421.] Of Tauler and Suso, Jac. Echard treats

particularly, Scriptor. Prædicator. tom. i. p. 653, 677. See also the Acta Sanctor. Januar. tom. ii. p. 654.

6 John Ruysbrock inveighs strongly against them; in his works, published by Lau. Surius, p. 50, 378; and De Vera Contemplat. c. xviii. p. 608.

Thomas of Brabant's treatise de Apibus, Hugo a S. Victor's Bestiarium, Thomas Walleis' de Natura Bestiarum cum moralizatione, and some others".

§ 8. In most of the defenders of christianity we find nothing perspicuous, elegant, and praiseworthy. Thomas Bradwardine, in his Books de Providentia, advances many ingenious and pertinent arguments in confirmation of the truth of religion in general. The Eye-salve of faith against the heretics, (Collyrium Fidei contra hæreticos,) by Alvarus Pelagius, does not come up to the magnitude of the subject; though it shows him to be an honest and well-disposed man. Against the Jews, came forth Porchetus Salvaticus, in his Victory of the Faith, transcribed in great measure from Raymund Martini; and also Nicolaus Lyra. They were both excelled by Theophanes, a Greek; in whose Books against the Jews, and his Agreement between the Old Testament and the New, are many things that are not contemptible.

$9. The contests between the Greeks and the Latins, seemed at times to come near to an adjustment. For the Greeks finding themselves to need the aid of the Latins, in repelling the continually increasing power of the Turks, manifested at times a pretended willingness to subject themselves to the demands of the Latins. In the year 1339, Andronicus Junior sent Barlaam into the West, to negotiate a peace in his name. In the year 1349, other Greek envoys came to Clement VI. to negotiate a treaty. In 1356, a similar embassy was sent to Innocent VI., at Avignon. In the year 1367, the Grecian patriarch came in person to Rome to press the business; and in the year 1369, the emperor, John Palæologus, came himself

7 [John Nieder belonged to the following century. He was a German of Suabia, a Dominican, a prior of Basle, an Inquisitor, and rector of the gymnasium of Vienne. He flourished A. D. 1431; and died A. D. 1438. His works are,Consolatorium Timoratæ Conscientiæ, (ed. Rome, 1604, 8vo.) Formicarius, seu Dialogus ad Vitam Christianam Exemplo Conditionum Formica incitatirus, (ed. Duaci, 1604. 8vo.) Præcep torium, (on the ten commandments; ed. Duaci, 1614. 8vo.) Alphabetum

Dirini Amoris; De Modo Bene Vivendi, (ed. Rome, 1604. 8vo.) De Reformatione Religiosorum, libri iii. Antw. 1611. 8vo. De Contractibus Mercatorum Liber; and Sermons for the year.-For Thomas of Brabant, or Cantipratensis, see above, p. 589, note. He flourished about the middle of the preceding century.-Hugo de S. Victor lived in the 14th century. See p. 468, note. His work, De Bestiis, is in his Opp. tom. ii. p. 418. (ed. Rouen, 1648. Fol.)

into Italy, published a confession of faith accordant with the views of the pontiff, and laboured to conciliate the friendship of the Latins. But the majority of the Greeks could never be persuaded to be silent and to submit themselves to the Romans; though some, from interested motives, manifested a disposition to yield to the terms imposed on them. Hence this century was spent amidst contests and vain negotiations for peace'.

§ 10. In the year 1384, a violent contest arose at Paris, between the university and the Dominican fraternity. John de Montesono, a native of Aragon, a Dominican and professor of theology, by direction and in the name of his order, publicly denied that the virgin Mary was conceived without sin or stain; and maintained that such as believed in her immaculate conception, sinned against religion and the faith. The commotions that arose from this transaction, would doubtless have subsided; if John had not renewed his asseverations, in stronger and bolder language, in a public discussion, A. D. 1387. The consequence was, that first the college of theologians, and then the whole university, condemned both this and some other opinions of Montesonus. For the university of Paris, influenced especially by the arguments of John Duns Scotus, had, almost from the beginning of the century, publicly adopted the doctrine of the sinless conception of the holy virgin. The Dominicans, with Montesonus, appealed from the decision of the university, to Clement VII., resident at Avignon: for they maintained that St. Thomas himself was condemned in the person of his fellow Dominican. But before the pontiff had passed sentence, the accused fled from the court of Avignon; and revolted to the party of the rival pontiff, Urban VI., who resided at Rome: and hence he was excommunicated in his absence. Whether the pontiff approved the judgment of the university of Paris, is uncertain. The Dominicans deny it; and maintain, that Montesonus was excluded from the church,

8 Henry Canisius, Lectiones Antiqua, tom. iv. p. 369. Leo Allatius, De Perpetua Consensione Eccles. Orient. et Occident. lib. ii. cap. 16, 17, p. 784, &c. Luc Wadding's Annales Minor. tom. viii. p. 29. 40. 107. 201. 289. 303.

312. Steph. Baluze, Vita Pontiff. Avenion. tom. i. p. 348. 380. 388. 403. 407. 410. 772.

9 See Wadding's Annales Minor. tom. vi. p. 52, &c.