Berthold, a German ecclesiastic, presbyter of Constance, and a warm partizan of Gregory VII. against Henry IV. He flourished from about A. D. 1066 to 1100. His Historia sui Temporis, ab anno 1053. usque ad ann. 1100; and his Appendix to Hermann Contractus' Chronicle, from A. D. 1055 -1066, are published among the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum. Some of his tracts also, in support of Gregory's measures, were published by Gretser. Guitmund, a Benedictine monk of Normandy, and then archbishop of Aversa in Italy, died A. D. 1080. He has left three books on the real presence in the Eucharist; a statement of the doctrine of the Trinity, &c. and an address to William I., king of England: all extant in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xviii. Sigifrid, archbishop of Mayence, from about 1069 to 1084. In the year 1064, he led a band of 7000 German pilgrims to the holy land. In 1074, he attempted to reclaim his clergy from simony and matrimony, without success. In 1076, Gregory VII. excommunicated him for adhering to the cause of Henry; but the next year he revolted; and he it was crowned Rudulph the competitor for the German throne. Four of his epistles are in the Collections of Councils. Durand, a monk of Normandy, a. D. 1070, was one who wrote against Berengarius. His tract is subjoined to Lanfranci Opp. ed. Dachery. Gualdo, a monk of Corbey, A. D. 1070; wrote a metrical life of St. Ansgar, bishop of Hamburg, and apostle of the North; which is in Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. vi. p. 116. St. Anselm, bishop of Lucca, A.D. 1071-1086. He was a decided supporter of Gregory VII.; and wrote two books in his defence against Guibert the antipope; also a collection of sentences from the fathers, in support of Gregory's principles respecting the independence of the clergy and the church of all civil power; both which are extant in Canisius, Lectt. Antiq. tom. vi. and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xviii. p. 602. and tom. xxvii. p. 436. His life, written by one of his friends and pupils, is in Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. ix. p. 469, &c. Willelmus, an abbot of Metz, a. D. 1073, and friendly to Gregory VII. Mabillon has published seven of his epistles and an oration, in his Analecta, tom. i. p. 247. Ingulphus of Croyland, born in London, A. D. 1030, educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1051, he accompanied William duke of Normandy to France, and became his private secretary. To escape envy, in 1064, he retired to Germany, and was one of the 7000 who went as pilgrims to the holy land under Sigifrid, archbishop of Mayence. On his return he was made abbot of Fontenelle; and A. D. 1076, William, now king of England, invited him thither, and made him abbot of Croyland, till his death, A. D. 1109. He was very intimate with Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury. His History of the Monastery of Croyland, from A. D. 664 to about 1091, was published by Saville, among the five Scriptores Anglicos, Lond. 1596. fol. and still better among the Rerum Anglicar. Scriptores, Oxon. 1684. fol. Lambert of Schafnaberg. He became a monk at Hirsfeld, A. D. 1058; soon after travelled as a pilgrim to the holy land, and returning, resumed his monastic life at Hirsfeld. There he composed, A. D. 1077, his History, which is a mere chronicle, from the creation to A. D. 1050, and then a very diffuse history down to A. D. 1077. His style is commended very highly. The work is published among the Scriptores Germanicos. Hugo, bishop of Die in the year 1077, and archbishop of Lyons from A. D. 1080 till after A. D. 1099. He was much engaged in the public transactions of the times. Two of his epistles to Gregory VII. are in the Collections of the Councils. Micrologus, a fictitious name for the author of a tract on the ceremonies of the mass, written in the latter part of this century, or perhaps in the next; which is extant among the Scriptores de Divinis Officiis, Paris, 1610. fol. and in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xviii. p. 469. Adamus, surnamed Magister, a canon of Bremen from A. D. 1077, and who flourished A. D. 1080. He wrote Historia Ecclesiastico præsertim Bremensis libri iv.; in which he describes, with much fidelity, the propagation of christianity in Hamburg, Bremen, Denmark, and throughout the North, from the times of Charlemagne to those of Henry IV.; to which he subjoined a geographical account of Denmark and other northern countries: published by Lindenbrog, Leyden, 1595. 4to. and Helmstadt, 1670. 4to. Benno, a German ecclesiastic, who adhered to Clement III., or Guibert, the antipope; was made archpresbyter and cardinal of Rome, and took a very active part against Gregory VII. He flourished about A. D. 1085; and wrote de Vita et Rebus gestis Hildebrandi et Papa, libri ii.; published, Francf. 1581. and among the Opuscula Anti-Gregoriana, by Goldast, Hanover, 1611. 4to. p. 1. Victor III. pope, A. D. 1086, 1087. He was born at Benevento, A. D. 1027; bore the name of Dauferius till he became a monk of Monte Cassino, when he assumed the name of Desiderius ; became abbot there in 1056, was made a cardinal, and employed on important occasions by the pontiffs. But he was ever partial to a retired and monastic life. His Dialogues on the miracles of St. Benedict, and other monks of Monte Cassino, in four books, (a work stuffed with idle tales,) has been frequently published; e. g. by Mabillon, in his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. sæcul. iv. pt. ii. Urban II. pope, A. D. 1087-1099. His former name was Otho, a native of Châtillon in the diocese of Rheims, a monk of Clugni, cardinal bishop of Ostia, and much employed by Gregory VII. While pope, he pursued the measures of Gregory. He has left us fifty-nine epistles, and two harangues in favour of a crusade; extant in the Collections of the Councils. Mabillon gives some account of his life, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. tom. ix. p. 902, &c. Lambert, bishop of Arras from a. D. 1094 onwards. Three of his epistles are in the Collections of the Councils. Raimund De Ageles, a canon of Le Puy, France, and chaplain to the earl of Toulouse, (who was also bishop of Le Puy,) whom he accompanied in his expedition to the holy land, A. D. 1095. He saw the holy lance dug out of the earth, and carried it at the siege of Antioch. He wrote the History of Jerusalem, describing especially the achievements of the earl of Toulouse, during five years, from the time they entered Slavonia on their way to the East. The work is in the collection of Bongars, de Gestis Dei per Francos, tom. i. p. 139. Gotselin, or Goscelin, a Benedictine monk of St. Bertin in Artois, and then of St. Augustine at Canterbury, who flourished A. D. 1096. He wrote the life of St. Augustine, the apostle of England; which is extant in Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. tom. i. p. 498. Balderic, secretary to two successive bishops of Arras and Cambray, and then bishop of Nimeguen and Tournay, A. D. 1097-1112. He wrote a history or chronicle of the churches of Cambray and Arras, in three books; published by Geo. Colvener, Douay, 1615. Paschal II. pope, a. D. 1099-1118. His former name was Rainer or Raginger; a Tuscan by birth, a monk of Clugni, a presbyter and cardinal of Rome, abbot of St. Laurence, and St. Stephen, and at last pope. His wars and contests with Henry V. were very violent. One hundred and seven of his epistles are in the Collections of Councils; and some more in Baluze, Miscellanies. Tr.] VOL. II. Bb CHAPTER III. THE HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. § 1. The state of religion.-§ 2, 3. Witnesses for the truth.-§ 4. Expositions of the scriptures.-§ 5, 6. Scholastic theology.-§ 7. Moral theology.-§ 8. Polemic theology.-§ 9, 10, 11. Controversies between the Greeks and Latins.— § 12. New contest respecting the holiness of images.-§ 13. Contentions in the Latin church. Controversy respecting the Lord's supper.—§ 14, 15, 16, 17. The pontiffs labour in vain to settle it.—§ 18. The result as to Berengarius and his friends.-§ 19. Dispute in France respecting Martial. § 1. It is not necessary to be minute in describing the state of the public religion of this age. For who can doubt that it was debased and corrupt, when the guardians of it were alike destitute of sacred and secular knowledge, and void of virtue; and even the first men in the church exhibited examples of the grossest vices? The people at large were wholly absorbed in superstition; and concerned themselves with nothing but statues, and images, and relics, and the futile rites which the caprice of their priests enjoined upon them. The learned had not, indeed, wholly lost all knowledge of the truth; but they obscured and debased it with opinions and doctrines, which were, some of them, ludicrous and silly, others hurtful and pernicious, and others useless and uncertain. It is certain that there were, here and there, pious and good men, who would willingly have aided the suffering cause of piety. But they themselves needed protection, against the satellites of superstition and impiety. § 2. From the times of Gregory VII., however, pretty clear traces appear, in some countries of Europe, especially in Italy and France, of those persons whom the Protestants denominate witnesses of the truth; that is, of pious and good men, who deplored the imperfection and defects of the public religion, and of the whole clerical order, who opposed the lordly domination both of the Roman pontiffs and of the bishops, and who attempted, sometimes covertly, and sometimes openly, to effect a reformation in the church'. For rude as this age was, and ignorant in general of the true revealed religion; yet those few fragments, as it were, of christianity, which were exhibited and explained to the people, were sufficient to show, even to the illiterate and the labouring classes, that the religion publicly inculcated, was not the true religion of Christ; that Christ required of his followers things wholly different from those exhibited in the discourses, and in the lives and morals of the clergy; that the pontiffs and the bishops exceedingly misused their power and opulence; and that the favour of God and salvation were to be obtained, not by a round of ceremonies, nor by donations to the churches and priests, nor by erecting and endowing monasteries, but by holiness in the soul. § 3. Those, however, who undertook the great work of reforming the church and religion, were, for the most part, incompetent to the task; and by their solicitude to avoid some faults, they ran into others. All, indeed, perceived the defects and the odiousness of the prevailing religion; but none, or at least very few of them, understood the nature and essential character of true religion. This will not appear strange to one who is well acquainted with those unhappy times. Hence, these reformers often mixed much that was false with a little that was true. As all saw that most of the principal enormities and crimes of the bishops and clergy were the consequence of their wealth and opulence, they placed too high an estimate on poverty and indigence, and looked upon voluntary poverty as the primary virtue of a good religious teacher. They all supposed the church of the primitive times to be a model, after which all churches were ever after to be formed and regulated; and the practice of the apostles of Jesus Christ they considered as an inviolable law for all priests. Many also, grieved to see the people place all their dependance for salvation on the cere 1 [Some have considered Peter Damianus, Hildebert, Ivo, Walthram bishop of Naumberg, and Lambert of Aschaffenburg, as examples of this class of persons. Von Einem.-See F. Spanheim's Introductio ad Historiam Eccles. N. T. sæcul. xi. cap. vii. § 5. p. 313, and the Catalogus Testium Veritatis, lib. xii. xiii. Tr.] 2 [In some of the writers of this century, we meet with specimens of sound christian doctrine, as well as of devout breathings of a pious soul. The English reader may see, for an example, the life of Anselm of Canterbury, in Milner's History of the Church, century xi. ch. v. Tr.] monies of religion and the external worship of God, contended that the whole of religion consisted in the internal emotions of the mind, and the contemplation of divine things; and they contemned and wished to abolish all external worship, and to have no houses of worship, nor religious meetings, no public teachers, and no sacraments. But § 4. A large number both of the Greeks and the Latins applied themselves to the interpretation of the holy scriptures. Among the Latins, the two Brunos expounded the Psalms of David; Lanfranc, the Epistles of Paul; Berengarius, the Apocalypse of St. John; Gregory VII. the Gospel of St. Matthew; and others, other portions of the sacred volume. all these follow the perverse custom of their age; that is, they either transcribe the works of former interpreters, or they apply the declarations of the sacred writers so whimsically to heavenly things and to the duties of life, that a wise man can scarcely restrain his indignation. The most eminent of the Greek interpreters, was Theophylact of Bulgaria; though he also drew most of his comments from the ancients, particularly from Chrysostom. After him we may place Michael Psellus, who attempted to explain the Psalms and the book of Canticles; the Catena on Job, by Nicetas; and some few others. § 5. Hitherto all the Latin theologians, except a few of the Irish, who threw obscurity on religious doctrines by their philosophical speculations, had illustrated, explained, and proved the doctrines of christianity, solely from the holy scriptures, or from them in connexion with the opinions and writings of the fathers. But in the middle of this century, some divines, among whom was Berengarius, well known by his controversy respecting the Lord's supper, ventured to apply the precepts of logic and metaphysics to the explanation of the scriptural doctrines, and the confirmation of their own opinions. Hence, the opposer and rival of Berengarius, Lanfranc, who was afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, employed the same weapons 3 For an account of Theophylact, see Rich. Simon's Histoire Critique des principaux Commentateurs du N. T. cap. xxviii. p. 380; and his Critique de la Bibliothèque des Auteurs Ecclés. par M. Du Pin, tom. i. p. 310, where he also treats of Nicetas and Ecumenius. |