the steps by which such striking results were accomplished. These are all clearly to be seen by the student of medieval religious history. The removal of the court to Constantinople had left the very opulent and influential bishop of the ancient capital in a situation that he never could have attained if his imperial master had still tenanted the palatine hill. As years rolled on, that master wanted to suppress image-worship. The Roman populace was outraged by this attack upon inveterate habits, and its bishop took the popular side. A revolt now annihilated the imperial authority over Rome, thus rendering the pope more powerful than ever. This power gained its next and its most important augmentation from the Carlovingian usurpation of the Frankish throne. To obtain an approval of this from the most influential of christian prelates was obviously desirable, and it was a concession which the usurping family repaid, by most profuse liberality to the Roman see. Thus Rome became a centre from which such able men as Sylvester II., Gregory VII., Innocent III., and Boniface VIII. could move the western world. It was under the first of these famous pontiffs, that the Roman see took something of that very lofty position which it occupied during four centuries. To the second was it indebted for the distinct enunciation of its encroaching claims, and for very considerable success in their establishment. The third saw papal greatness at its height. The fourth exceeded even his boldest predecessors in the tone of his pretensions. But a spirit of resistance was now abroad which he could not overcome, and which permanently eclipsed the Roman see. From the time of Boniface the papal power declined. This volume, therefore, unfolds the rise, progress, and commencing decline of that remarkable spiritual monarchy, which has exercised such a commanding influence over the affairs of men, both spiritual and temporal.

To trace the steps of that monarchy is not important merely, or even chiefly, as an interesting subject of historical inquiry.

The fact is, that for many years the papacy was generally considered as the supreme depositary of European power, even in temporals. Papal partisans adduce evidence of that fact, and would fain refer it to the heavenly endowment of St. Peter. The student of medieval religious history will watch the eases in which this power was recognised. He will examine whether princes were thus complaisant to the see of Rome, unless they had some scitish end in view. The reason why Rome could serve them is obvious enough. It was the ancient metropolis of Europe; it had retained a considerable degree of civilisation, when every thing else to the north and west was barbarous, or little better: it contained the ablest divines and canonists that the west could boast; it had been the scene of apostolie minis tries and martyrdoms, which was a strong recommendation to superstitious minds. Its bishops had long been dear to inferior life, as the only effectual barrier against noble and princely avarice and oppression. Could princes, therefore, use an instrument so powerful upon occasions for their own purposes, they were willing enough to aid these purposes, by making, on the spur of the morient, strange and most impolitie

concessions.

It will be seen, too, that the papacy really derived great advantage from the crusades, and hence it may be worth considering whether an opinion is well founded which has been advanced among protestants, that these ebullitions of military fanaticism were artfully promoted by the popes from sordid motives. The question, however, is of little moment, except for the sake of historical justice; the crusades really having left fewer traces upon society than almost any other movement of equal magnitude, within such a distance of time. But it may be observed with little hesitation, that the pepes in this case appear to have been unjustly blamed. They seem to have

For this may be consulted the inne Jager's Introduction to his French translation of Vogt's Estor

of Geary Vil, a work that does something more than ustice to the memory if that very die watlf.

been hurried blindly on by the same stream of fanaticism that carried down their contemporaries, and only to have been actuated by that degree of selfishness which prompted a skilful use of such advantages as the folly of others threw in their

way.

With respect to the monastic system, which this volume traces to its origin, and through the whole of its most brilliant period, the conduct of Rome seems hardly capable of so favourable a construction. To no institution does the papacy stand so deeply indebted, as to monachism. To suppose, indeed, that Rome, from interested foresight, stimulated the first movements of Benedict of Nursia, and undertook the guidance of his order, would be absurd, no less than uncharitable and untrue. But it is difficult to elude a suspicion, that when the monkish confederacies attained importance, their motions, controllable by a few superiors, their power to check the secular clergy, and their strong hold upon popular fanaticism and superstition did not tempt the Roman court to seek materials in them for its own aggrandisement.

Means of judging upon this, and upon other questions, besides those already mentioned, that are not yet grown into mere matters of liberal curiosity, are offered in the present volume. It exhibits, therefore, a portion of history which must be studied by all who would understand, not only what immediately follows, but also the present state of European society. The middle ages have left a vivid impress upon the present age, and none can understand its religion, literature, and institutions, who want either means or inclination to make inquiries into their remains.