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It is likely that the tube was nothing more than a plain open one, employed to strengthen and defend the eyesight, when looking at particular stars, by excluding adventitious rays from other stars and objects, a contrivance which no observer of the heavens can ever be supposed to have been without.

PUBES. See ANATOMY.

PUBES, in botany, hair or down; a general term, expressive of all the hairy and glandulous appearances on the surface of plants. They are supposed to serve the double purpose of defensive weapons, and vessels of secretion. Different species of hairs have obtained different names; some are visible to the naked eye, while others are rendered visible only by the help of glasses; they are of different forms; in leguminous plants they are usually cylindric; in the mallow tribe, terminated in a point; in agrimony, shaped like a fish-hook; in the nettle, awl-shaped and jointed; and in some compound flowers, they end in two crooked points.

PUBLIC worship. By law all contemners of public worship shall be, ipso facto, excommunicated; and if any person shall disturb a preacher in his sermon by word or deed, he shall be apprehended and carried before a justice, who shall commit him to goal for three months.

PUDDING stone, in chemistry, a term invented by English lapidaries to designate one particular mineral aggregate, consisting of oblong and rounded pebbles of flint, about the size of almonds, imbedded in a hard silicious cement. The pebbles are usually black, and the cement a light yellowish brown. It is capable of receiving a very high polish, and is used in ornamental works. It is found chiefly in Essex. The French mineralogists have naturalized the term, poudingue, and have applied it to all rounded stones, imbedded in a cement, so as to make it nearly synonymous to the English "rubble-stone."

PUGIL, in physic, &c. such a quantity of flowers, seeds, or the like, as may be taken up between the thumb and two fore-fingers.

PUISNE, younger, junior; as a puisne judge.

PULEX, in natural history, the flea, a genus of insects of the order aptera. Generic character: mouth without jaws or feelers, with a long inflected proboscis, covered at the base with two ovate lamina; the sheath two-valved, five-joint

ed, and concealing a single bristle; lip rounded and fringed with reflected prickles; antennæ projecting, moniliform; two eyes; abdomen compressed; six legs formed for leaping. There are two species, viz. P. irritans, the common flea; and P. penetrans, or chigger.

The common flea is remarkable for undergoing the several changes experienced by the greater part of the insect race of other tribes, being produced from an egg in the form of a minute larva, which changes to a chrysalis, in order to give birth to the perfect animal. The egg is small, oval, and white, and from this in a few days is hatched the larva, which is destitute of feet, beset with hairs, and furnished at the head with a pair of short antennæ, and at the tail with a pair of slightly curved forks. The larvæ in about ten days arrive at their full growth, when they cease to feed, and, casting their skin, change into the state of a chrysalis, which is of a white colour, and of an oval shape, with a slightly pointed extremity, and exhibits the immature limbs of the included insect. ter remaining in the chrysalis state about a fortnight, the complete insect emerges, in its perfect form. The singularity most worthy of notice in the flea, is the situation of the first pair of legs, which are placed beneath the head. The eyes are large, round, and black: the male is smaller than the female, with the back rather sinking than convex, as it always is in the female.

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P. penetrans, or chigger, is a native of South America and the West India islands it is said to be exceedingly troublesome in the sugar colonies, penetrating into the skin of the inhabitants, where it lodges its eggs, and causes malignant, and sometimes fatal ulcers.

PULLEY, in mechanics, one of the mechanical powers, called by seamen a tackle. See MECHANICS.

PULMONARIA, in botany, lung-wort, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Asperifolia, Borragineæ, Jussieu. Calyx prismatic, five-cornered; corolla funnelform, with an open throat. There are five species, of which P. officinalis, common lung-wort, has a perennial fibrous root, lower leaves rough, about six inches long, and two and a half broad, of a dark green on their upper side, marked with many broad whitish spots, pale underneath; stalks almost a foot in height, hav. ing several smaller leaves on them, stand

ing alternately; the flowers are produced in small bunches at the top of the stalks; calyx tubulous, hairy, as long as the tube of the corolla; brims of the petals spread open, shaped like a cup, red, purple, and blue, in the same bunch. Woodville observes, that the name pulmonaria seems to have arisen rather from the speckled appearance of the leaves, resembling that of the lungs, than from any intrinsic quality, which experience has discovered to be useful in pulmonary complaints.

PULSE, in the animal economy, denotes the beating or throbbing of the heart and arteries.

PULTENEA, in botany, so named in honour of William Pulteney, M. D. a genus of the Decandria Monogynia class and order. Generic character: calyx five-toothed, with an appendage on each side; corolla papilionaceous; the wings shorter than the standard; legume of one cell, with two seeds. There are six species, all natives of New Holland.

PULVERIZATION, an operation, commonly employed in the apothecary's shop by means of pestles and mortars. The bottom of the mortars should be concave; and their sides should neither be so inclined as not to allow the substances operated on to fall to the bottom between each stroke of the pestle, nor so perpendicular as to collect it too much together, and to retard the operation. The materials of which the pestles and mortars are formed, should resist both the mechanical and chemical action of the substances for which they are used. Wood, iron, marble, silicious stones, porcelain, and glass, are all very properly employed; but copper, and metals containing copper, are to be avoided, especially where the article operated upon has a tendency to corrode the metal.

PUMICE, in mineralogy, is of a grey. ish white colour: it occurs in mass and disseminated, being always more or less carious. It is glistening, with a silky lustre; its fracture is fibrous, its fragments are sharp edged; it is opaque, sometimes a little translucent on the edges; it is rather soft, but its particles in powder are very hard: it is fusible without addition before the blow-pipe into a white enamel; it is regarded as a volcanic product, and is wrought in considerable quarries in the Lipari islands, which are almost entirely composed of this mineral. It is found also in Sicily and Iceland. It is composed of

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This mineral is employed in the arts for grinding down metals, glass, ivory, &c. previously to polishing. It is likewise used in smoothing leather, and many other purposes of the like kind.

PUMP, in hydraulics, a machine formed on the model of a syringe, for raising of water. See HYDRAULICS.

PUMP, air. See PNEUMATICS.

PUMP, chain, consists of a long chain, equipped with a sufficient number of valves, at proper distances, which working upon two wheels, one above and the other below, passes downward through a wooden tube, and returns upward through another. It is managed by a long winch or roller, whereon several men may be employed at once; and thus it discharges, in a limited time, a much greater quantity of water than the common pump, and with less fatigue and inconvenience to the labourers. This machine was formerly exposed to several disagreeable accidents, by nature of its then construction. The chain was of too complicated a fabric, and the sprokel wheels, employed to wind it up from the ship's bottom, were deficient in a very material circumstance, viz. some contrivance to prevent the chain from sliding or jerking back upon the surface of the wheel, which frequently happened when the valves were charged with a considerable weight of water, or when the pump was violently worked. The links were evidently too short, and the unmechanical manner in which they were connected exposed them to a great friction in passing round the wheels. Hence they were sometimes apt to break or burst asunder in very dangerous situations, when it was extremely difficult, and sometimes impracticable to repair the chain. Of late, however, some considerable improvements have been made by Mr. Cole, under the direction of Captain Bentinck. The chain of this machine is more simple and mechanical, and less exposed to danger. It appears to have been first applied to the pump by Mr. Mylne, to exhaust the water from the caissons at Blackfriars Bridge. It was thence transferred to the marine by Cap

tain Bentinck, after having received some material additions to answer that service. The principal superiority of this pump to the former is, 1. That the chain is more simple and easily worked, and consequently less exposed to injuries by friction. 2. That the chain is secured upon the wheel, and thereby prevented from jerking back when charged with a column of water. 3. That it may be easily taken up and repaired when broken, or choked with ballast, &c. And, 4. That it discharges a much greater quantity of water with an inferior number of men. This has been proved by experience, when two men (instead of four) discharged a tun of water in fifty-five seconds.

PUNCH, an instrument of iron or steel, used in several arts for the piercing or stamping holes in plates of metals, &c. being so contrived as not only to perforate, but to cut out and take away the piece. The punch is a principal instrument of the metal button-makers, wafermakers, patch-makers, shoe-makers, &c. PUNCHEON, a little block or piece of steel, on one end whereof is some figure, letter, or mark, engraven either in creux or relievo, impressions whereof are taken on metal, or some other matter, by striking it with a hammer on the end not engraved. There are various kinds of these puncheons used in the mechanical arts: such for instance as those of the goldsmiths, cutlers, pewterers, &c. The puncheon, in coining, is a piece of iron steeled, whereon the engraver has cut in relievo the several figures, arms, effigy, inscription, &c. that are to be in the matrices, where with the species are to be marked. Minters distinguish three kinds of puncheons, according to the three kinds of matrices to be made; that of the effigy, that of the cross, or arms, and that of the legend, or inscription. The first includes the whole portrait in relievo: the second are small, each only containing a piece of the cross or arms; for instance, a fleurde-lys, an harp, a coronet, &c. by the assemblage of all which the entire matrice is formed. The puncheons of the legend only contain each one letter, and serve equally for the legend on the effigy side and the cross side.

PUNCHEON is also used for several irontools, of various sizes and figures, used by the engravers in creux on metals. Sealgravers particularly use a great number for the several pieces of arms, &c. to be engraven, and many stamp the whole seal from a single puncheon.

PUNCHEON is also a common name for

all those iron instruments used by stonecutters, sculptors, blacksmiths, &c. for the cutting, inciding or piercing their several matters. Those of sculptors and statuaries serve for the repairing of statues when taken out of the moulds; the locksmiths use the greatest variety of puncheons; some for piercing hot, others for piercing cold; some flat, some square, some round, others oval, each to pierce holes of its respective figure in the several parts of locks.

PUNCHEON, in carpentry, is a piece of timber placed upright between two posts, whose bearing is too great, serving, together with them, to sustain some large weights. This term is also used for a piece of timber raised upright, under the ridge of a building, wherein the little forces, &c. are jointed.

PUNCHEON, is also used for the arbor, or principal part of a machine, whereon it turns vertically, as that of a crane, &c

PUNCHEON is also a measure for liquids, containing an hogshead and one third, or eighty-four gallons.

PUNCTUATION, the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense requires.

The comma (,) represents the shortest pause; the semicolon (;) a pause double that of the comma; the colon (:) double that of the semicolon: and the period (.) double that of the colon. The precise duration of these pauses must depend on the degree of slowness or rapidity observed in reading; but the proportion between them should be ever invariable.

In order to determine clearly the application of the points, it is necessary to distinguish between a simple sentence and a compound sentence. A simple sentence contains only one finite verb: as "Virtue refines the affections." A compound sentence has more than one finite verb expressed or implied, and therefore consists of two or more simple sentences connected together: as, "Virtue refines the affections; but vice debases them."

The comma is used to mark the pauses which occur in a simple sentence; the semicolon and the colon divide a compound sentence into the members which compose it; and the period is placed at the end of a sentence to denote that it is complete, and unconnected with that which follows.

In a simple sentence, when two or more words of the same sort, or belonging to the same part of speech, occur

tences which are not connected in construction; but it may be sometimes ad

they are parted by a comma: as, "Husband, wife, and children;" "open, generous, sincere;” “to read, mark, learn;"__mitted, though they are joined by a co"to live soberly, righteously, and godly,"

&c.

Where the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by necessary adjuncts, either to the subject or to the verb, the separation is generally marked by a comma: as, "To rouse mankind, when sunk in ignorance or superstition, and to encounter the rage of bigotry, armed with power, required the utmost vehemence of zeal, and a temper daring to excess."

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence, and hence it occurs most generally in cases where the comma has preceded, and a greater pause is necessary: as, "Tribulation worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope." "He knew how to conciliate the most enterprising spirit, with the coolest moderation; the most obstinate perseverance, with the easiest flexibility; the most severe justice, with the greatest lenity; the greatest rigour in command, with the greatest affability of deportment; the highest capacity and inclination for science, with the most shining talents for action." In each of these examples the first clause forms a complete sentence, and what is expressed in it is understood in those which follow. The colon divides a compound sentence into parts less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon. It may be properly applied in the three following

cases:

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but is followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject: as, "The knowledge of nature is only half the task of a poet: he must be acquainted likewise with all the modes of life."

2. When several semicolons have preceded: as, "Those who propagate evil reports frequently invent them; and it is no breach of charity to suppose this to be always the case; because no man who spreads detraction would scruple to produce it: and he who should diffuse poisons in a brook would scarce be acquitted of a malicious design, though he should allege that he received it of another who is doing the same elsewhere.

3. Where an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced: as, "He was often heard to say: "I have done with the world."

The period is employed to separate sen

pulative or disjunctive conjunction: as, "In passing judgment upon the characters of men, we ought to try them by the principles and maxims of their own age, and not by those of another. For, although virtue and vice are at all times the same, manners and customs vary continually.”

Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others, which denote a different modulation of voice in correspondence to the sense. These are,

The interrogation point
The exclamation point
The parenthesis

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The interrogation and exclamation points are sufficiently explained by their names: they are indeterminate as to their duration, and may in that respect be equivalent to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense requires. They gene. rally mark an elevation of the voice.

The parenthesis is a clause introduced into the body of a sentence without af fecting the construction. It marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be marked with every point which the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind of stop which the member has that precedes it; and to contain that stop within the parenthetical marks: as, "He found them asleep again; (for their eyes were heavy;) neither knew they what to answer him."

PUNICA, in botany, a genus of the Icosandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Pumacex. Myrti, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five-cleft, superior; petals five; pome many-celled, many-seeded. There are two species; viz. P. granatum, common pomegranate tree, and P. nana, dwarf pomegranate tree; with several varieties, which are cultivated rather for the beauty of their scarlet-coloured flowers than for the fruit, which seldom arrives to any perfection in this country, so as to render it valuable.

PUR auter vie, where lands, &c. are held by another's life. See ESTATE.

PURCHASE, signifies the buying or acquisition of lands or tenements with money, or by deed or agreement ; and not obtaining it by descent, or hereditary right.

PURITANS, a name given to the Protestant exiles who returned to England upon the accession of Queen Elizabeth.

These exiles were no sooner come to their native country, than they set about to carry on the work of reformation, even further than it had been done by the ecclesiastical laws of Elizabeth. This princess, with those that had weathered the storm at home, were only for restoring King Edward's liturgy; but the majority of the exiles were for the worship and discipline of the foreign churches, and refused to conform to the usages of the old establishment, declaiming loudly against the popish habits and ceremonies. For a time the Queen connived at their non-conformity; but no sooner did she find herself firmly established on the throne, than she gave the Puritans, as the reforming exiles were reproachfully called, a specimen of her proud spirit, and the nation a proof of her secret attachment to the principles and many of the ceremonies of the Romish faith. A Puritan, at that time, was a man of severe morals, a Calvinist in doctrine, and a nonconformist to the ceremonies, and discipline of the church As they did not avowedly separate from the church, they seem to have acted, in this particular, somewhat like the Westleyan Methodists of the present day.

The aversion which Queen Elizabeth conceived against the Puritans induced her to act against them in the most cruel and rigid manner. "For," says Neal, "besides the ordinary courts of the bishops, her Majesty erected a new tribunal, called the High Commission, which suspended and deprived men of their livings, not by the verdict of twelve men upon oath, but by the sovereign determination of three commissioners of her Majesty's own nomination, founded not upon the statute laws of the realm, but upon the bottomless deep of the canon law; and instead of producing witnesses in open court to prove the charge, they as sumed a power of administering an oath ex officio, whereby the prisoner was obliged to answer all questions the court should put to him, though never so prejudicial to his own defence; if he refused to swear, he was imprisoned for contempt; and if he took the oath he was convicted upon his own confession." Such are the ingenious intricacies which a spirit of intolerance can invent, to puzzle and embarrass its victims!

Having already, in some degree, anticipated the history of the Puritans, in the article PRESBYTERIANS, it is almost unnecessary to enlarge in this place.

Mr. Hume, whom no one will accuse of

an unwarrantable prejudice for the principles of civil and religious liberty, observes, when speaking of the conduct of Elizabeth," so absolute was the authority of the crown, that the precious spark of liberty had been kindled, and was preserved by the Puritans alone, and it was to this sect, whose principles appear so frivolous, and habits so ridiculous, that the English owe the whole freedom of their constitution" When it is considered who it is that thus speaks of the Puritans, and when it is also considered what is meant by "the whole freedom of the English constitution," it will be thought that we, of the present day, are debtors, of no small magnitude, to the zeal and perseverance of the ancient Puritans.

It must, however, be granted, that when the persecutions carried on against the Puritans, during the reign of Elizabeth and the Stuarts, had driven the Puritans once more to seek refuge abroad, they now, in their turn, persecuted others who dissented from them. Those who formed the colony of Massachusetts Bay, having never relinquished the principle of a national church establishment, were less tolerant than those who settled at Plymouth, at Rhode Island, and at Providence plantations. The consequence was, they did not fail to discover that their sufferings and trials had not fully taught them the lessons of Christian forbearance and universal toleration. Happily for the peace and security of mankind, those lessons are now better understood; and little remains of the offensive parts of Puritanism, besides what is to be found in the genius of high Calvinism, still unhappily possessing the minds of some of the sectaries of our own time. We may, however, fairly hope that the time is fast approaching, when the true principles of liberty shall be not only acknowledged, but fully acted upon; and the spirit of enthusiasm and bigotry known only to be execrated, and remembered only to be avoided. See Dr. Toulmin's edition of Neal's History of the Puritans, and Palmer's Nonconformist's Memorial; two works of considerable merit, and fraught with information on the history and principles of the Puritans. See also the articles NON-CONFORMISTS, PRESBYTERIANS, PROTESTANTS, and RE

FORMATION.

PURLUE, or PURLIEU, signifies all that ground near any forest, which, being made forest by King Henry II., Richard I., and King John, was afterwards, by perambulations and grants of Henry III. se

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