consulting on the subject, proceeded to defend the whole of the isthmus by a wall. This was soon finished, as not one of so many thousands was inactive; for without intermission either by night or day, they severally brought stones, bricks, timber, and bags of sand. LXXII. The Greeks who appeared in defence of the isthmus with their collected strength, were the Lacedæmonians, Arcadians universally, Eleans, Corinthians, Sicyonians, Epidaurians, Phliasians, Træzenians, and Hermionians. All these were drawn together, by the danger which menaced Greece. The rest of the Peloponnesians, although the Olympic games and Carnian festivals were past, remained in careless inactivity at home. LXXIII. The Peloponnese is inhabited by seven different nations; two of these, the Arcadians and Cynurians are natives of the country, and have never changed their place of residence. The Achaians have never quitted the Peloponnese, but simply removed from one situation to another. The four others, namely, the Dorians, Etolians, Dryopians, and Lemnians, migrated hither. The Dorians have many famous cities; the Etolians Elis only; the famous robber of that name, who was remarkable for his barbarity to passengers, and who was killed by Theseus.-See Lucian in Jove Tragoedo, where we learn that at the same time Theseus destroyed two other famous robbers, whose names were Pityocamptes and Cercyon. Sciron he threw into the sea, and his bones became rocks.-See Ovid. Met. vii. 443.-T. 1 Arcadians.]-Eustathius, in Dion. v. 414, tells us, that Arcadia was formerly called Gigantis, that is, the Land of Giants. It was also called Azania. Arcadia was sacred to the god Pan, who was worshipped in every corner of the country. It was celebrated for the richness of its pastures; and its inhabitants were so generally addicted to the business of feeding cattle, that Arcades and Pastores became synonymous terms, and the Bucolic verse was styled the Arcadian. Of the antiquity which this people claimed, I have already spoken in a foregoing note. Some have supposed Arcadia to have been so called from Arcas, the son of Callisto, who was said to have had his name from the supposed transformation of his mother, and to have given it to Arcadia.-See in Arati Phon. de Callistho. Tixu Agnтer ourα TO OTα Arxada. Homer says they were wholly ignorant of maritime affairs: Επει ου σφι θαλασσια έργα μεμηλείο Which Pope imperfectly renders, And new to all the dangers of the main. See what De Pauw says of the Arcadians in his Recherches sur les Grecs.-T. 2 Ætolians.]—There seems to be a doubt in this place whether it should be read Eolians or Etolians, Eolus is said by some learned men to be Elishah, eldest son of Javan.-See the Genealogy. The name Elishah is explained by the Jewish Rabbi to mean ad insulam: and the Dryopians have Hermion and Asina, near Cardamyle," in Laconia. The Paroreate are all Lemnians. The Cynurians, though natives of the country, are supposed to be Ionians; but in process of time, like the Orneatæ and their neighbours, they became Dorians, and subject to the Argives. Of all these seven nations, those only whom I have specified, attached themselves to the cause of Greece; the others, if I may speak the truth, certainly favoured the Medes. LXXIV. They who were at the isthmus exerted themselves as if every thing depended upon them alone, not expecting any thing from the fleet. The Greeks at Salamis, hearing this, were overwhelmed with terror, not so much on their own account, as on that of the Peloponnese. They began to murmur secretly among each other, and to complain of the injudicious conduct of Eurybiades. They at length expressed their discontent aloud, and obliged a council to be called; a violent debate ensued, some were for sailing instantly to the Peloponnese, and risking every thing for its defence, urging the absurdity of staying where they were to contend for a country already captured. The Athenians, with those of Ægina and Varro, as cited by Servius on the 1st Eneid, gives the same title to Eolus Hippetades, styling him dominus insularum. Lesbus was called Issa, that is, I believe, the island. See Hesychius in Iran. Of the Etolians, M. P. De Pauw, in his preliminary Discourse to his Recherches Philosophiques sur les Grecs gives a shock. ing character. "On y parloit," says the Frenchman, "a la verite la langue des Grees, mais on y avoit les mœurs des Barbares, & tant d'atrocite dans les caracteres, que l'on comparoit les Etolians a des betes feroces ca chees sous le masque de l'homme," &c.-T. 3 Cardamyle.]-Strabo says this city was founded ou a rock, Tirgus; and Homer mentions it as one of the seven which Agamemnon promised to give Achilles. 4 Paroreate.]-See book iv. c. 145. Oreata was the name of a city in the territories of Lacedæmon, which was afterwards called Brasie or Prasiæ, concerning which consult Pausanias in Laconicis.-T. 5 Argives.]-Eustathius says, that Apis cleared the Peloponnese of serpents, and named it from himself Apia; he was deified, and thence called Scrapis, a mani. fest allusion to the great idol of the Egyptians. From these serpents Argos might receive its name, for #gy was used as synonymous with 04-See Hesychius. The frog, which was the symbol of the people of Argos, was explained to be a direction to them to keep at home; and properly enough, that they might guard the isthmus, prevent a surprise, and be a constant garrison to the Peloponnese. It was an allusion also, I believe, to their old name Leleges. Aaλays, says Hesychius, is the frog of a green colour. The Spartan coin, or that of the Pelo ponnese, was a xian, or tortoise, the symbol of a housekeeper.-T. Megara, thought it most advisable to fight | removed, and occupied the whole narrow sea where they were. as far as Munychia. They drew out their fleet in this manner to cut off from the Greeks the possibility of retreat, and that, thus inclosed at Salamis, they might suffer vengeance for the battle of Artemisium. Their view in sending LXXV. Themistocles, seeing himself overpowered by those of the Peloponnese, retired privately from the council: he immediately despatched a messenger to the enemy's fleet, with instructions what to say. The man's name was Sicinnus, a domestic, and the tutor of his children, whom Themistocles afterwards caused to be made a citizen of Thespia, and who became very opulent. Directing his course to the leaders of the barbarian fleet, he thus addressed them: "The Athenian leader," who in reality is attached to the king, and who wishes to see the Greeks in subjection to your power, has sent me thus privately to you: a consternation has seized the Greeks, and they are preparing to fly; an opportunity is now afforded you of performing a splendid action, unless you suffer it through negligence to escape you. They are divided among themselves, and incapable of farther resistance. You will soon see those who favour, and who are inclined to oppose you, in hostilities with each other." Having said this, Sicinnus departed. LXXVI. The Barbarians, confiding in this intelligence, passed over a large body of Persians to the small island of Psittalia,' betwixt Salamis and the continent. About midnight the western division of their fleet advanced towards Salamis," meaning to surround it. The ships also which lay off Ceos and Cynosura," 6 Athenian leader.] Themistocles, who leads Athenian squadrons, is the monarch's friend, To separate and fly. Let Asia's fleet 7 Psittalia.]-Fitrahia. Non retulissem inter populos Atticos nisi Strabonis locus aliud suaderet. Itaque credendum illum aliquando fuisse habitatum.-Jacobus Sponius de Pagis Atticis. 8 Advanced towards Salamis.]-Larcher, in a very elaborate note, attempts to describe the situation of the two fleets with respect to each other in this memorable engagement; but the reader perhaps will have a better conception of it from a chart to be found in the Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis, than from any thing Larcher has said, or that I can say.-T. 9 Cynosura]-This was a promontory of Attica, opposite to the southern extremity of Euboea; and must not be confounded with the place of the same name in Laconia. Some critical remarks on the subsequent oracle may be found in Jortin's Remarks on Eccles. Hist. Appendix, No. 2.—T. a body of forces to Psittalia was this; this island was contiguous to the spot where the battle must of necessity take place; as therefore such vessels and men as were injured in the fight must endeavour to take refuge here, they might here preserve their own and destroy the forces of the enemy. The measure was pursued privately and unperceived by the enemy, to accomplish which, the whole night was employed without any interval of rest. LXXVII. After reflecting upon this subject, the truth of the oracular prediction ap.. pears incontestible; for who would attempt to contradict a declaration so obvious as the following? "On Dian's shore, and Cynosura's coasts, When every strait is fill'd with naval hosts; When hostile bands, inspired with frantic hope, In Athens give wide-wasting fury scope.Then shall the youthful son of daring Pride The vengeance of celestial wrath abide, Fierce though he be, and confident of power, For arms with arms shall clash, and blood shall shower O'er all the sea: while liberty and peace From Jove and Victory descend to Greece." After the above explicit declaration from Bacis, I shall neither presume to question the authority of oracles myself, nor patiently suffer others to do so. LXXVIII. Disputes still continued to run high amongst the leaders of Salamis, who were not at all conscious of their being surrounded by the Barbarians. They presumed that the enemy remained on the very same post in which they had observed them during the day. LXXIX. Whilst they were debating in council, Aristides, son of Lysimachus, arrived at Egina; he was an Athenian, and had been banished 1 by a vote of the people, although my 10 10 Banished.]-Literally ostracised. Every body knows that ostracism was the banishing a person by writing his name upon a shell, in Greek Ostracon. It was not a dishonourable banishment, but rather a mark of popular. ity, and generally inflicted on the great and powerful. By this, Themistocles, Aristides, Thucydides, and Alcibiades, were banished. By ostracism, a person was banished for ten years; a similar mode of banishment was adopted at Syracuse, and called petalism, where the people wrote the name upon a leaf, petalon. By petalism, a man was banished for five years only. zens. information induces me to consider him as the most excellent and upright of his fellow-citiHe immediately went to the assembly, and called out Themistocles, who was not his friend, but his particular enemy. The great ness of the impending danger prevailed over every thing else, he called him out to confer with him he had heard how anxious the Peloponnesians were to return with the fleet to the isthmus; accordingly, when Themistocles appeared, he spoke to him thus: "It would become us at any time, and more particularly at the present, to contend which of us can best serve our country. I have to inform you, that whatever the Peloponnesians may now urge with respect to retiring to the isthmus can be of no signification; I can assure you, from my own observation, that the Corinthians, and Eurybiades himself, could not now sail thither if they would; we are on all sides surrounded by the enemy. Return, therefore, and tell this to the assembly." LXXX. “What you tell me," replied Themistocles, "I consider as particularly happy for us all. The thing which I most ardently wished to happen you have beheld: know then, that this motion of the Medes is the consequence of my measures, it appearing to me essential that those Greeks, who were reluctant to fight, should be compelled to do so; but as you come to tell us what promises so much good, tell it yourself. If I shall inform the assembly of what you say, I shall obtain no credit; nor will they suppose that the Barbarians Perpetual exile at Athens was the punishment of sacrilege and high treason; the term they used was not φεύγειν, but εξέρχεσθαι. - Τ. 1 Most excellent.]—Ælian gives a catalogue of Greeks who were alike remarkable for their extraordinary merit and extreme poverty. Aristides, Phocion, Epaminondas, Pelopidas, Lamachus, Socrates, and Ephialtes. With respect to the dispute betwixt Themistocles and Aristides, the same authority informs us, that they were educated together under the same preceptor, and that when children they were notorious for their dislike of and quarrels with each other. Plutarch says, that one among other reasons for the inveterate hatred which prevailed betwixt them, was their having an attachment to the same youth. The circumstance of their mutually laying aside their animosities when their country was in danger, has obtained them everlasting glory.-T. 2 Best serve our country.]— Dissensions past as puerile and vain Weak men! throughout these narrow seas the foe Enter therefore your. are posted as they are. self, and inform them how things are. If they believe you, it will be well; but if not, the event will be the same. For if, as you say, we are surrounded, there exists no opportunity to retreat." LXXXI. Aristides entering the council, repeated what he had before said; that he was come from Ægina, and had passed with great difficulty through the enemy's forces; that the Grecian fleet was entirely surrounded, and that it became them to prepare for their defence. Aristides, as soon as he had spoken, retired. Fresh altercations now again arose among the leaders, the greater part of whom refused to credit what they had heard. LXXXII. Whilst they continued still to doubt, a trireme of Tenians deserted to them ; they were commanded by Paratius, the son of Sosimenes; and their intelligence put the matter beyond all dispute. In gratitude for this service, the names of the Tenians were inserted upon the tripod consecrated at Delphi, amongst those who repelled the Barbarians. This vessel, which joined them at Salamis, added to one of Lemnos, which before came over to them at Artemisium, made the exact number of the Grecian ships three hundred and eighty. There were only three hundred and seventyeight before. LXXXIII. The Greeks having all their doubts removed by the Tenians, prepared seriously for battle. At the dawn of morning all was in readiness. Themistocles said every thing which might avail to animate his troops. The principal purport of his speech was a comparison betwixt great and pusillanimous actions: explaining how much the activity and genius of man could effect, and exhorting them to have glory in view. As soon as he had finished, orders were given to embark. At this juncture the vessel which had been sent to the acide returned from Ægina, and soon afterwards all the Grecian fleet were under sail. 3 Salamis.]-Attica was surrounded by islands, but except this of Salamis, they were in general barren and uninhabited. Salamis is praised in high terms by Euri. pides, as abounding in honey and olives. Euripides and Solon were both born here. The trophies of the battle of Salamis, says De Paux, cease to interest us; but the Iphigenia in Tauris, and the legislation of Solon, can never be forgotten. To take a circuit of the district of Attica, it was ad. vised to embark at Salamis, double the promontory of Sunium, and landing in the Oropian territories, proceed to the mouth of the Asopus.-T. LXXXIV. As soon as they began to move, the Barbarians rushed upon them. While the Greeks lay upon their oars, and seemed rather inclined to retire, Aminias, of Pallene, an Athenian, darted forwards, and attacked the enemy; when he was so involved with his opponent, as to be unable to separate, the rest came to his assistance, and a promiscuous engagement ensued. Thus, according to the Athenians, the battle began. The people of Egina say, that the engagement was begun by the vessel which had been sent to the acidæ. It is also affirmed, that a female figure was visible to the Greeks, and that in a voice sufficiently loud to be heard by them all, it exclaimed, “Insensate men, how long will ye remain inactive on your oars?" LXXXV. The Athenians were opposed to the Phenicians, who occupied the division towards Eleusisi' and the west; the Lacedæmonians combated the Ionians, who were in the division towards the Piræus and the east. A small number of these, at the suggestion of Themistocles, made no remarkable exertions: but with the majority it was otherwise. I am able to mention the names of several trierarchs, who overpowered and took Grecian vessels; but I shall only specify Theomestor, son of Androdamas, and Phylacus, son of Histiæus, both of them Samians. I mention these, be cause on account of the service which he on this occasion performed, Theomestor was made prince of Samos by the Persians. Phylacus also had his name written, as deserving of the royal favour, and was presented with a large tract of land. They who merit the favour of the king are in the Persian tongue called Orosanga. LXXXVI. A very great part of the Barbarian fleet was torn in pieces at Salamis, principally by the Athenians and the people of Egina. The event could not well be otherwise. The Greeks fought in order, and preserved their ranks; the Barbarians, without 4 Eleusis.]—So called from Eleusis son of Mercury. See Pausanias in Atticis, and Meursius Attica Lectiones, l. iii. c. 20. The Eleusinians submitted voluntarily to the dominion of Athens, on condition of having the privilege exclusively of celebrating the mysteries of Ceres and Proserpine, which proved to them an inexhaustible source of riches.-T. 5 Piraus.]-This, as I have before remarked, was the most celebrated port of the Athenians. A tract of J. Meursius, called Piræus, contains every thing relating to it and its antiquities.-T. either regularity or judgment. They nevertheless behaved better this day than at Euboea, and they made the greater exertions from their terror of the king, in whose sight" they imagined they fought. LXXXVII. To speak decisively and minutely of the several efforts, either of Barbarians or Greeks, is more than I can presume to do. The conduct however of Artemisia increased her favour with the king. When the greatest disorder prevailed in the royal fleet, the vessel of Artemisia was pursued by an Athenian, and reduced to the extremest danger. In this perplexity, having before her many vessels of her allies, and being herself nearest to the enemy, the following artifice succeeded. As she retreated from the Athenian, she commenced an attack upon a ship of her own party; it was a Calyndian, and had on board Damasithymus, the Calyndian prince. Whilst they were in the Hellespont, she was involved in some dispute with this man, but it is still uncertain whether her conduct in the present instance was the effect of design, or accidentally happened from the Calyndian's coming first in her way. This vessel Artemisia attacked and sunk, by which she obtained a double advantage. The Athenian commander, seeing the vessel he pursued attack a Barbarian, supposed that it was either a Grecian ship, or one that had deserted the Barbarians, and was now assisting the Greeks; he was thus induced to direct his attack elsewhere. LXXXVIII. Artemisia by this action not only avoided the impending danger, but also made herself more acceptable to the king at the time she was doing him an actual injury. It is asserted that the king, as he viewed the engagement, observed her vessel bearing down upon the other. At this period some attendant remarked to him, "observe, Sir, the prowess of Artemisia, she has now sent to the bot 6 In whose sight.]-It is no doubt difficult to describe and understand accounts of battles: but whoever places himself on the spot where the Persian monarch is said to have viewed the battle of Salamis, and at the same time reads the account which Herodotus, or that which Eschylus, an eye-witness, gives in his Perse of that action, and considers the shoalness of the water, and the small space into which so many ships were crowded, must think contemptibly of the marine engagements in those days.-Wood on Homer. 7 Artifice succeeded.]-Polyænus informs us, that Ar temisia first ordered her Persian ensign to be taken down, a circumstance omitted by Herodotus, but which adds much to the probability of the story.-Larcher. tom a vessel of the enemy." The king was earnest in his inquiry, whether the ship which attracted his attention was really that of Artemisia. Those about him, knowing exactly the figure which distinguished her ship, assured him that it was: at the same time they had no doubt but the vessel she had attacked belonged to the enemy. It happened among the other fortunate occurrences which Artemisia met with, that not a single person of the Calyndian vessel survived to accuse her. Xerxes is said to have replied to what they told him: "The men have behaved like women, the women like men." 2 3 LXXXIX. In this battle, many personages of distinction fell, both of the Persiars, the Medes, and their confederates: among others, Ariabignes was slain: he was the commanderin-chief, son of Darius, and brother of Xerxes. The loss of the Greeks was but small. As they were expert in swimming, they, whose ships were destroyed, and who did not perish by the sword, made their escape to Salamis. Great numbers of the Barbarians, from their ignorance of this art, were drowned. When the foremost ships were obliged to seek their safety by flight, a general destruction of the rest ensued. They who were behind, anxious 1 The women like men.]-Xerxes sent a complete suit of Grecian armour to Artemisia as a reward of her brav. ery; to the commander of his own fleet, a distaff and spindle.-Polyænus. This last does not seem to me probable, and the answer of Xerxes perhaps gave rise to it. The commander of the fleet was the brother of Xerxes, who died after fighting gallantly.-Larcher. Cicero in his Treatise de Off. i. 18, quotes these lines: Upon which Jortin remarks: "We know not from what poet these lines are taken; they are, however, placed among the fragments of Ennius, p. 150, and are more likely to have come from his pen than any other." This virago was perhaps Artemisia; be that as it will, the Latin poet seems to have borrowed the expression from Herodotus. 2 Ariabignes.]-Called Artabazanes, book vii. c. 2. " 3 Swimming.]-The art of swimming constituted a material part of youthful education among the Greeks and Romans; if they intended to speak in very contemptuous terms of any man, they said he had neither learned to read nor to swim. Savary informs us, that of the Egyptians, men, women, and children, are remarkably expert, and he says graceful, in swimming. Man is the only perfect animal which learns to swim, all others swim naturally; in general we find that islanders, and all those people whose country is intersected by canals, or abounds in rivers, are skilful in this manly exercise, whilst those living more inland are ignorant of it.-T. to advance to the front, and to give the king who viewed them, some testimony of their zeal and courage, ran foul of those vessels which were retreating. XC. During the confusion, many Phenicians who had lost their ships, went to the king, and informned him, that their disgrace was occasioned by the perfidy of the Ionians. The consequence of this was, that the Ionian leaders were not punished with death, but the Phenicians were. While they were yet speaking, a Samothracian vessel attacked one of Attica, and sunk it; immediately afterwards, a ship of Ægina fell upon the Samothracian, and inflicted on it a similar fate; but the Samothracians, who were skilful in the management of the spear, attacked as they were going down their adversaries with so much success, that they boarded and took the vessel. This exploit was very fortunate for the Ionians. Xerxes observing this specimen of the Ionian valour, turned with anger to the Phenicians, and as he was beyond measure vexed and exasperated, he ordered them all to be beheaded, as being pusillanimous themselves, they had presumed to accuse men better than themselves. The king, placed on mount Ægaleos," which is opposite to Salamis, was particularly observant of the battle, and when he saw any person eminently distinguish himself, he was minute in his inquiries concerning his family 4 Mount Egaleos.]-The ancients differ concerning mis. Phanodemus pretends that it was from the temple the place from which Xerxes beheld the battle of Salaof Hercules, in a place where Attica is separated from Salamis by a very small strait. Acestodorus says it was from the hills called Cerata, (The Horns) or the confines of the territory of Megara. The difference is only in sp pearance. They fought, says Pausanias, at Salamis, which stretches itself as far as Megara; thus mount Egaleos was on the confines of Attica and MegaraLarcher. Eschylus in the Persæ contents himself with saying, that Xerxes was a spectator of the engagement, without saying from what place: Έδραν γας είχε παντός ευαυγη στρατου Ύψηλον όχθεν αγχι πελαγίας αλος. He had a seat from which he could easily discern all his forces, a lofty mound, near the sea; from which it should seem to have been some artificial tumulus. The Scho liast to the passage of Eschylus refers the reader to the place before us in Herodotus. Pliny calls it mount Egialos.-T. |