cording to their mutual relations, connexions, || ceeded without a guide, in the search after and resemblances, and reduced into a kind of truth. They also approved his method of system, he proceeded still farther, and made rising, with caution and accuracy, from the admirable use of them in reforming the other most simple, and, as it were, the primary dicbranches of philosophy, and giving them a new tates of reason and nature, to truths and propodegree of stability and consistence. This he sitions of a more complex and intricate kind, effected by connecting all his branches of and of admitting nothing as truth, that was philosophical reasoning in such a manner, that not clearly and distinctly apprehended as such. principles and consequences were placed in They went still farther, and unanimously acthe most accurate order, and the latter seemed knowledged, that he had made most valuable to flow from the former in the most natural and important discoveries in philosophy, and manner. This method of pursuing truth could had demonstrated several truths, which, benot fail to attract the admiration of many; and fore his time, were received upon no other evi30 indeed it happened; for no sooner had Des- dence than that of tradition and conjecture Cartes published his discoveries in philosophy, || But these acknowledgments did not prevent than a considerable number of eminent men, some of those who made them with the greatin different parts of Europe, who had long en- est sincerity, from finding several essential tertained a high disgust to the inelegant and defects in the philosophy of this great man. ambiguous jargon of the schools, adopted these They considered his account of the causes and discoveries with zeal, declared their approba- principles of natural things, as for the most tion of the new system, and expressed their part hypothetical, and founded on fancy, rather desire that its author should be substituted in than experience. They even attacked the the place of the Peripatetics, as a philosophi- || fundamental principles upon which the whole cal guide to the youth in the public semina- system of his philosophy was built, such as his ries of learning. On the other hand, the ideas of the Deity, of the universe, of matter Peripatetics, or Aristotelians, seconded by the and spirit, of the laws of motion, and other influence of the clergy, who apprehended that points that were connected with these. Some the cause of religion was aimed at, and endan- of these principles they pronounced uncertain; gered, by these philosophical innovations, others, they said, were of a pernicious tendenmade a prodigious noise, and left no means cy, and likely to engender the most dangerous unemployed to prevent the downfall of their errors; and they affirmed, that some were diold system, and diminish the growing reputa- rectly contrary to the language of experience. tion of the new philosophy. To execute this At the head of these objectors appeared his invidious purpose with the greater facility, fellow-citizen, Gassendi, who had made war they not only accused Des-Cartes of the most before him upon the Aristotelians and Chydangerous and pernicious errors, but went so mists; who, in genius, was his equal; in learnfar, in the extravagance of their malignity, as ing, greatly his superior; and whose mathema to bring a charge of atheism against him. This tical knowledge was most uncommon and ex furious zeal of the Aristotelians will not appear tensive. This formidable adversary directed so extraordinary, when it is considered, that his first attacks against the metaphysical printhey contended, not so much for their philo-ciples which supported the whole structure of sophical system, as for the honours, advantages, and profits they derived from it. The Theosophists, Rosecrucians, and Chymists, entered into this contest against Des-Cartes, bu' conducted themselves with greater moderation than the Aristotelians, notwithstanding ther persuasion that the Peripatetic philosophy, though chimerical and impious, was much less intolerable than the Cartesian system. The consequences of this dispute were favourable to the progress of science; for the wiser part of the European philosophers, although they did not adopt the sentiments of Des-Cartes, were encouraged and animated by his example to carry on their inquiries with more freedom from the restraints of traditional and personal authority than they had formerly done, and to throw resolutely from their necks that yoke of servitude, under which Aristotle and his followers had so long kept them in subjec the Cartesian philosophy. He then proceeded still farther; and, for the physical system of Des-Cartes, substituted one that resembled not a little the natural philosophy of Epicurus, though far superior to it in solidity, much more rational, consistent, and perfect, being founded, not on the illusory visions of fancy, but on the testimony of sense and the dictates of experience.* This new and sagacious observer of nature had not many followers, and his disciples were much less numerous than those of Des-Cartes. But what he wanted in number, was sufficiently compensated by the merit and reputation of those who adopted his philosophical system; for he was followed by some of the most eminent men in Europe, by persons who were distinguished in the highest degree by their indefatigable application, and *See his Disquisitio Metaphysica, seu Dubitationes et Instantiæ adversus Cartesii Metaphysicam, et Responsa, in the third volume of his works.-Ber nier, a celebrated French physician, has given an accurate view of the philosophy of Gassendi in his abridgment of it, published at Lyons, in 1684. This abridgment will give the reader a better account of this philosophy than even the works of Gassendi himself, in which his meaning is often expressed in an ambiguous manner, and which are, besides, loaded with superfluous erudition. The Life of Gassendi, accurately written by Bougerelle, a priest of the oratory, was published in 1737.-See Eiblioth Francoise, tom. xxvii. p. 353. man with the utmost certainty; and hence arises their propensity to form their opinions and doctrines into a regular system. The fol their extensive knowledge both of natural philosophy and mathematics. He had certainly few disciples in his own country; but, among the English, who in his time were re-lowers of Gassendi consider man as in a state markable for their application to studies of a of ignorance with respect to an immense numphysical and mathematical kind, a considera- ber of points, and, consequently, think it inble number adopted his philosophical system. cumbent upon them to suspend their judgment It may here be observed, that even those emi- in a multitude of cases, until time and expenent philosophers and divines, such as Which rience dispel their darkness; and hence it is cot, Gale, Cudworth, and More, who entered also, that they consider a system as an attempt the lists with Hobbes, (whose doctrine came of too adventurous a nature, and by no means nearer to the principles of Gassendi than to proportioned to the narrow extent of human the system of Des-Cartes,) and revived ancient knowledge; or, at least, they think, that the Platonism, in order to crush under its weight business of system-making ought to be left to the philosopher of Malmesbury, placed Gas- the philosophers of future times, who, by joinsendi and Plato in the same class, and ex-ing the observations and experience of many plained the sentiments of the latter in such a manner as to make them appear quite agreeable to the principles of the former.* ages, may acquire a more satisfactory and accurate knowledge of nature than has been yet attained. spirit of mildness and mutual forbearance; and, knowing that differences in opinions are inevitable where truth is so difficult of access, will guard against that temerity with which too many disputants accuse their antagonists of ir religion and impiety.† XXXIV. From this period must be dated These dissensions and contests concerning the famous schism that divided the philoso- the first principles of human knowledge, prophical world into two great sects, which, though duced various debates upon other subjects of they almost agree upon those points that are the utmost moment and importance; such as, of the greatest utility and importance in hu- the nature of God, the essence of matter, the man life, differ widely about the principles of elements or constituent principles of bodies, human knowledge, and the fundamental points the laws of motion, the manner in which the whence the philosopher must proceed in his Divine J rovidence exerts itself in the governsearch of truth. Of these sects, one may pro- ment of the world, the frame and structure of perly be called Metaphysical, and the other the universe, the nature, union, and joint ope Mathematical. The metaphysical sect follows rations of soul and body. If we consider at the system of Des-Cartes; the mathematical tentively the profound and intricate nature of one directs its researches by the principles of these subjects, together with the limits, debiliGassendi. Philosophers of the former class ty, and imperfections of the human underlook upon truth as attainab e by abstract rea- standing, we shall see too much reason to fear, soning; those of the latter seek it by observa- that these contests will last as long as the pretion and experience. The follower of Des- sent state of man.* The wise and the good, senCartes attributes little to the external senses,sible of this, will carry on such debates with a and much to meditation and discussion. The disciple of Gassendi, on the contrary, places little confidence in metaphysical discussion, and principally has recourse to the reports of sense and the contemplation of nature. The Cartesian, from a small number of abstract truths, deduces a long series of propositions, in order to arrive at a precise and accurate knowledge of God and nature, of body and spirit; the Gassendian admits these metaphysical truths, but at the same time denies the possibility of erecting, upon their basis, a regular and solid system of philosophy, without the aid of assiduous observation and repeated It is abundantly known that Des-Cartes and his experiments, which are the most natural and striking at the foundations of all religion; nor is this metaphysical followers were accused by many of effectual means of philosophical progress and accusation entirely withdrawn even in our times. improvement. The one, eagle-like, soars with See, in the miscellaneous works of Father Hardouin, an intrepid flight to the first fountain of truth, his Atheists Unmasked. Among these pretended atheists, Des-Cartes, and his two famous disciples, and to the general relations and final causes of (Antoine Le Grand and Sylvain Regis,) hold the things; and thence descending, explains, by first rank; nor is Father Malebranche, though he them, the various changes and appearances of seems rather chargeable with fanaticism than athenature, the attributes and counsels of the Dei-ism, exempted from a place in this odious list. It is true that Hardouin, who gives so liberally a place in ty, the moral constitution and duties of man, the atheistical class to these great men, was himself the frame and structure of the universe. The a visionary dreamer, whose judgment, in many other, more difficult and cautious, observes cases, is little to be respected; but it is also true, with attention, and examines with assiduity, not reason from his own whimsical notions, but the objects that are before his eyes; and rises draws all his arguments from those followers of gradually from them to the first cause, and the Aristotle and Gassendi, who have opposed, with the primordial principle of things. The Carte- greatest success and acuteness, the Cartesian system. Even Voltaire, notwithstanding the moderasians suppose, that many things are known by tion with which he expresses himself, seems plainly enough to give his assent to the accusers of DesCartes. On the other hand, it must be observed that these accusers are censured in their turns by several modern metaphysicians. Gassendi, for example, is charged by Arnauld with overturning the doctrine *See the preface to the Latin translation of Cudworth's Intellectual System; and also the remarks added to that translation. Dr. Mosheim is the author of that translation and of those remarks. pamphlet, entitled, La Metaphysique de Newton, ou * Voltaire published, in 1740, at Amsterdam, a Parallele des Sentimens de Newton et de Leibnitz, which, though superficial and inaccurate, may be useful to those readers who have not application enough to draw from better sources, and are desirous of knowing how much these two philosophical sects differ in their principles and tenets. that, in the work now under consideration, he does XXXV. Those who had either adopted, || But it met with a favourable reception in Great without exception, the principles of Des-Car- Britain, whose philosophers perceiving, in its tes, or who, without going so far, approved the infant and unfinished features, the immortal method and rules laid down by him for the in- lines of Verulam's wisdom, snatched it from vestigation of truth, employed all their zeal its cradle, in a soil where it was ready to and industry in correcting, amending, confirm- perish, cherished it with parental tenderness, ing, and illustrating, the metaphysical species and have still continued their zealous efforts of philosophy; and its votaries were exceed to bring it to maturity and perfection. The ingly numerous, particularly in France and in Royal Society of London, which may be conthe United Provinces. But among the mem- sidered as the philosophical seminary of the bers of this philosophical sect there were some nation, took it under their protection, and who aimed at the destruction of all religion, have neither spared expense nor pains to cultimore especially Spinosa, and others, who, like vate and improve it, and to render it subserviBalthasar Becker,* made use of the principles of ent to the purposes of life. It owed, more esDes-Cartes, to overturn some doctrines of Chris- pecially, a great part of its progress and imtianity, and to pervert others. This circum-provement to the countenance, industry, and stance proved disadvantageous to the whole genius of that immortal protector of science, sect, and brought it into disrepute in many the pious and venerable Robert Boyle, whose places. The metaphysical philosophy fell, how-memory will be ever precious to the worthy ever, afterwards into better hands, and was and the wise, the friends of religion, learning, treated with great wisdom and acuteness by and mankind. The illustrious names of Barrow, Malebranche, a man of uncommon eloquence Wallis, and Locke, may also be added to the and subtlety; and by Leibnitz, whose name is list of those who contributed to the progress consigned to immortality as one of the greatest of natural knowledge. Nor were the learned geniuses that ever appeared in the world.† Nei- divines of the British nation (though that order ther of these great men, indeed, adopted all the|| has often excited the complaints of philosoprinciples and doctrines of Des-Cartes; but both phers, and been supposed to behold, with a of them approved, upon the whole, his philoso- jealous and suspicious eye, the efforts of phiphical method, which they enlarged, amended, losophy as dangerous to the cause of religion) and improved, by several additions and correc- less zealous than the other patrons of science tions, that rendered its procedure more luminous in this noble cause. On the contrary, they and sure. This is more especially true of looked upon the improvement of natural knowLeibnitz, who, rejecting the suggestions of ledge not only as innocent, but as of the highest fancy, seemed to follow no other guides than utility and importance; as admirably adapted reason and judgment; for Malebranche, having to excite and maintain in the minds of men a received from nature a warm and exuberant profound veneration for the Supreme Creator imagination, was too much ruled by its dic- and Governor of the world, and to furnish new. tates, and was thus often imperceptibly led supports to the cause of religion; and also as into the visionary regions of enthusiasm. agreeable both to the laws and the spirit of the Gospel, and to the sentiments of the primitive church. And hence it was that those doctors, who, in the lectures founded by Mr. Boyle, attacked the enemies of religion, employed in this noble and pious attempt the succours of philosophy with the most happy and trium XXXVI. The mathematical philosophy already mentioned, was much less studied and adopted than the metaphysical system, and its followers in France were very few in number. of the soul's immortality in his controversy with Des-Cartes, and by Leibnitz with corrupting and de-phant success. But the immortal man, to stroying the whole system of natural religion: see Des-Maizeau, Recueil de diverses pieces sur la Philosophie, tom. ii.* Leibnitz has also ventured to af firm, that Sir Isaac Newton and his followers rob the Deity of some of his most excellent attributes, and sap the foundations of natural religion. In short, the controversial writings on both sides are filled with rash and indecorous reproaches of this kind. See, for a farther account of the particular tenets and opinions of Becker, sect. ii. part ii. chap. ii. sect. xxxv. of this century. For an ample and interesting account of Malebranche and his philosophy, see Fontenelle's Eloges des Academiciens, tom. i. p. 317, and, for a view of the errors and defects of his metaphysical system, see Hardouin's Atheists Unmasked, in his Œuvres Melees, p. 43. Fontenelle has also given an account of the life and philosophical sentiments of Leibnitz, in the work already quoted, vol. ii.; but a much more ample one has been published in German by Charles Gunther Ludewig, in his history of the Leibnitian Philosophy. However, the genius and philosophy of this great man are best to be learned from his let*ters, published by Kortholt. It appears, on reference, that the censure is not conveyed in such strong terms as those employed by our historian; Leibnitz merely says, that Gassendi appeared to hesitate and waver too much concerning the nature of the soul and the principles of natural religion. whose immense genius and indefatigable industry philosophy owed its greatest improvements, and who carried the lamp of knowledge into paths of nature that had been unexplored before his time, was Sir Isaac Newton,* whose name was revered, and whose genius was admired, even by his warmest adversaries. This Mr. Hume's account of this great man is extremely just, and contains some peculiar strokes that do honour to this elegant painter of minds. "In Newton, (says he,) this island may boast of having produced the greatest and rarest genius that ever arose for the ornament and instruction of the species. Cautious in admitting no principles but such as were founded in experiment; but resolute to adopt every such principle, however new and unusual; from modesty, ignorant of his superiority above the rest of mankind, and thence less careful to accom. modate his reasonings to common apprehensions: more anxious to merit than to acquire fame; he was, from these causes, long unknown to the world; but his reputation, at last, broke out with a lustre, which scarcely any writer, during his own life-time, had ever before attained. While Newton seemed to draw off the veil from some of the mysteries of nature, he showed, at the same time, the imperfections of the mechanical philosophy; and thereby restored her ultimate secrets to that obscurity, in which they ever did and ever wi I remain.' great man spent, with uninterrupted assiduity, || sects such of their respective tenets as seemed the whole of a long life in correcting, digesting, to them most remarkable for their perspicuity and enlarging, the new philosophy, and in and solidity, more especially those concerning throwing upon it the light of demonstration and which all the different sects were agreed. evidence, both by observing the laws of nature, These they compiled and digested into a sysand by subjecting them to the rules of calcula- tem, and pushed their inquiries no farther. The tion; and thus he introduced a great change into philosophers of this class are generally termed natural science, and brought it to a very high || Eclectics. From these remarkable differences degree of perfection.* The English look upon of sentiment and system that reigned among it as an unquestionable proof of the solidity the jarring sects, some persons, otherwise disand excellence of the Newtonian philosophy, tinguished by their acuteness and sagacity, that its most eminent votaries were friends to took occasion to represent truth as unattainareligion, and have transmitted to posterity ble by such a short-sighted being as man, and shining examples of piety and virtue; while, to revive the desperate and uncomfortable docon the contrary, the Cartesian or metaphysical trine (shall I call it, or jargon) of the Sceptics, system has exhibited, in its followers, many that had long been buried in the silence and flagrant instances of irreligion, and some de- oblivion which it deserved. The most emimonstrations of the most horrid impiety. nent of these cloudy philosophers were Sanchez, a physician of Toulouse, de la Mothe le Vayer, Huet, bishop of Avranches, to whom we may justly add Peter Bayle,§ who, by the erudition and wit that abound in his voluminous works, acquired a distinguished reputation in the republic of letters. XXXVII. The two famous philosophical sects now mentioned, deprived, indeed, all the ancient systems of natural science, both of their credit and their disciples; and hence it might have been expected that they would have totally engrossed and divided between them the suffrages of the learned. But this was not the case; the liberty of thinking being restored by Des-Cartes and Newton, who broke the fetters of prejudice, in which philosophical superstition had confined, in former times, the human understanding, a variety of sects sprang up. Some trusting to their superior genius and sagacity, and others, more remarkable for the exuberance of their fancy than for the solidity of their judgment, pretended to strike out new paths in the unknown regions of nature, and new methods of investigating truth; but of their disciples the number was small, and the duration of their inventions transitory; and therefore it is sufficient to have barely mentioned them. There appeared also another sort of men, whom mediocrity of genius, or an indolent turn of mind, indisposed for investigating truth by the exertion of their own talents and powers, and who, terrified at the view of such an arduous task, contented themselves with borrowing from the different *The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, as also the other writings, whether philosophical, mathematical, or theological, of this great man, are abundantly known. There is an elegant account of his life, and literary and philosophical merit, given by Fontenelle, in his Eloge des Academiciens, tom. ii. p. 293.-See also the Biblioth. Angloise, tom. xv. par. ii. p. 545, and Biblioth. Raisonee, tom. vi. par. ii. p. 478. See more especially the late learned and ingenious Mr. Maclaurin's Account of Air Isaac Newton's Discoveries. * *There is still extant a famous book of this writer, entitled, de eo quod nihil scitur, which, with Huet's book concerning the Weakness of Human Amsterdam, in 1723, and lately in Latin. It appears, Reason was published after his death, in French, at however, that this eminent writer had, long before the composition of this book, recommended the searches, and looked upon it as the best adapted to sceptical method of conducting philosophical reestablish the truth of Christianity upon solid foun dations. See the Commentarius de Rebus ad eum pertinentibus, lib. iv. p. 230; and Demonstrat Evan gelicæ Præfat. sect. iv. p. 9, where he commend their manner of proceeding, who, by sceptical argu ments, invalidate all philosophical principles, before they begin to prove the truth of Christianity to those who doubt of its evidence. It is well known that the Jesuits, who were particularly favoured by Huet have, on many occasions, employed this method to throw dust in the eyes of the Protestants, and thus lead them blindfold into the Romish communion, and that they still continue to practise the same insidious instrument of seduction. Every thing relating to the life and sentiments of Bayle is abundantly and universally known. His life, composed by M. Des-Maizeaux, was published at the Hague in 1732.-The scepticism of this insidi ous and seducing writer was unmasked and refuted, with great learning and force of argument, by J. P. de Crousaz, in a voluminous French work, entitled, Traite du Pyrrhonisme, of which M. Formey gave an elegant and judicious abridgment under the title of Triomphe de l'Evidence. SECTION II. PART I. THE HISTORY OF THE MORE ANCIENT CHURCHES CHAPTER I. Containing the History of the Romish Church. I. HIPPOLITO ALDOBRANDINI, under the papal name of Clement VIII. continued to rule the church of Rome at the commencement of this century, having been elected to that high dignity toward the conclusion of the preceding one. The eminent abilities and insidious dexterity of this pontiff, as also his ardent desire of extinguishing the Protestant religion, and extending the limits of the Romish church, are universally acknowledged; but it is much questioned, whether his prudence was equal to the arduous nature of his pontifical station, and the critical circumstances of an incidental kind that arose during his administration.* || He was succeeded in 1605 by Leo XI. of the house of Medici, who died a few weeks after his election, and thus left the papal chair open to Camillo Borghese, by whom it was filled under the denomination of Paul V. This pontiff was of a haughty and violent spirit, jealous to excess of his authority, and insatiably furious in the execution of his revenge upon such as encroached on his pretended prerogative, as appears in a striking manner by his rash and unsuccessful contest with the Venetians.f-Gregory XV.,‡ who was raised to the *This pontiff had an edition of the Vulgate published, which was very different from that of pope Sixtus; and this is one of the many instances of that contrariety of opinion which has prevailed amongst the infallible heads of the church of Rome. This contest arose, partly from two edicts of the republic of Venice for preventing the unnecessary increase of religious buildings, and the augmentation of the enormous wealth of the clergy; and partly from the prosecution of two ecclesiastics for capital crimes, who had not been delivered up to the pope at his requisition. It is not surprising that these proceedings of the Venetians, however just and equitable, should inflame the ambitious fury of a pontiff, who called himself Vice-God, the Monarch of Christendom, and the Supporter of Papal Omnipotence. Accordingly, Paul subjected all the dominions of the republic to an interdict, while the Venetians, on the other hand, declared that unjust and tyrannical mandate null and void, and banished from their territory the Jesuits and Capuchins, who had openly disobeyed the laws of the state. Preparations for war were proceeding on both sides, when an accommodation, not very honourable to the pope, was brought about by the mediation of Henry IV. of|| France. This controversy between the pope and the Venetians produced several important pieces, composed by Sarpi on the side of the republic, and by Baronius and Bellarmine in behalf of the pontiff. The controversy concerning the nature and limits of the pope's pretended supremacy is judiciously stated, and the papal pretensions are accurately examined, by Sarpi, in his history of this tyrannical interdict, which, in Italian, occupies the fourth volume of his works, and was translated into Latin by William Bedell, of Cambridge.-It was Paul V. that dishonoured his title of Holiness, and cast an eternal stain upon his infallibility, by an express approbation of the doctrine of Suarez, the Jesuit, in defence of the murder of kings. His family name was Alexander Ludovisio. pontificate in 1621, seemed to be of a milde. disposition, though he was not less defective than his predecessor in equity and clemency toward those who had separated themselves from the church of Rome. An unjust severity against the friends of the Reformation is, indeed, the general and inevitable character of the Roman pontiffs; for, without this, they would be destitute of the predominant and distinctive mark of the papacy. A pope inspired with sentiments of toleration and charity toward those who refuse a blind submission to his opinions and decisions, is a contradiction in terms. Urban VIII., who previously bore the name of Meffei Barberini, and who, by his interest in the conclave, ascended the papal throne in 1623, was a man of letters, an elegant writer, an elegant poet, and a generous and munificent patron of learning and genius;* but nothing_could equal the rigour and barbarity with which he treated all who bore the name of Protestants. He may be indeed considered as a good and equitable ruler of the church, when compared with Innocent X. of the family of Pamphili, who succeeded him in 1644. This unworthy pontiff, to a profound ignorance of all those things which it was necessary for a Christian bishop to know, joined the most shameful indolence and the most notorious profligacy; for he abandoned his person, his dignity, the administration of his temporal affairs, and the government of the church, to the disposal of Donna Olympia,† a woman of corrupt morals, insatiable avarice, and boundless ambition. His zealous endeavours to prevent the peace of Westphalia, however odious they may appear when considered in themselves, ought not to be reckoned among his personal crimes, since it is to be sup * See Leonis Allatii Apes Urbanæ. This little work is a sort of index, or list, of all the learned and eminent men who adorned Rome, under the pontificate of Urban VIII. and experienced the munificence and liberality of that pontiff; and their number is far from being small. The Latin poems of Urban, which are not without a considerable portion of wit and elegance, have passed through several editions. These poems were composed while he was yet a cardinal. After his elevation to the pontificate, he published a remarkable edition of the Romish Breviary and several bulls; among which, that which abolishes the order of Female Jesuits and certain festivals, those relating to image-worship, and to the condemnation of Jansenius' Augustinus, and that which confers the title of Eminence upon the cardinal-legates, the three ecclesiastical electors, and the grand master of Malta, are the most worthy of notice. This Donna Olympia Maldachini was his brother's widow, with whom he had lived, before his elevation to the pontificate, in an illicit commerce, in which his holiness continued afterwards. See the Memoires du Cardinal de Retz, tom. iii. and iv. of the last edition published at Geneva.-For an account of the disputes between this pontiff and the French, see Bougeant's Histoire de la Paix de Vestphalia, tom. iv. |