CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, a celebrated Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher, born at Arpinum, Italy, January 3, 106 B.C.; put to death near Formiæ, Italy, December 7, 43 B.C. He belonged to a wealthy family of the equestrian order, and was carefully educated, especially in Greek literature and philosophy. At the age of twenty-five he entered upon his public career as a pleader in the Forum, and before he had reached middle life he had become acknowledged to be by far the greatest of Roman orators. To narrate the public life of Cicero would be in effect to write the history of Roman politics for more than thirty eventful years. He passed as rapidly as his age would permit, through the various grades of public service, becoming consul at the age of fortythree. His consulship was especially notable for the frustration of the conspiracy organized by Catiline; and for the part which he bore in this, Cicero was hailed as the "Father of his Country" and the "Saviour of Rome." The ensuing twelve years of the life of Cicero were passed partly in the exercise of various public functions, partly in the composition of several of his philosophical treatises. At the close of 50 B.C. Rome was on the verge of a civil war between the parties headed by Cæsar and Pompey. Cicero endeavored to mediate between the parties; but when Cæsar took the decisive step of crossing the Rubicon, Cicero formally joined the party of Pompey. Cæsar, in 48 B.C., gained the supremacy by his decisive victory at Pharsalia. Cicero submitted himself to the victor, from whom he received the utmost clemency and respect. During the ensuing four years Cicero took no prominent part in public affairs, but devoted himself to literature, writing the greater part of his philosophical works. He had no share in the assassination of Cæsar (44 B.C.), though after the deed was done he applauded it as a wise and patriotic act. When the ambitious designs of Mark Antony began to manifest themselves, Cicero set himself in decided opposition, and delivered the fourteen orations styled Philippics against him. For a time it seemed that Cicero would be successful. But reverses came. Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed a coalition, known as "the Second Triumvirate," and gained supreme power in the state. Cicero fled from Rome to his villa at Formio. Mark Antony demanded the head of Cicero. Octavius and Lepidus yielded to the demand, and Cicero was put to death at the door of his villa by the bravos of Mark Antony, near the close of the year 43 B.C. He had just reached the age of sixty-three. His head and hands were cut off and sent to Rome, where they were exposed to many indignities by order of Mark Antony. Cicero was one of the most voluminous of authors. Of the works which he is known to have written some of them of large size-many are no longer extant. But those which we have in a fair state of preservation comprise several goodly volumes. The latest, and probably the best, edition is that of Orelius (Zurich, 1826-38), in twelve large octavo volumes; in which, however, much space is taken up by critical apparatus of various kinds. The extant works of Cicero may be classed in several groups: 1. Orations, of which we have about fifty.—2. Literary and Philosophical Treatises; the principal of which are: De Republica, De Legibus, De Oratore, De Finibus, De Senectute, De Claris Oratoribus, De Natura Deorum, De Amicitia, Tusculanarum Disputationum, De Divinatione, and De Officiis.—3. Epistles, of which several hundreds are extant. These Epistles are perhaps the most really valuable of all the works of Cicero; they give an account of his life almost from day to day, and furnish also graphic sketches of not a few of the leading personages of the time. They stand almost unique among the remains of antiquity, and have hardly an equal in modern times. There are indeed few men of historical note of whom we know so much as we may learn of Cicero from these Epistles. Nearly all of the extant works of Cicero have been well rendered into English by various translators. PUBLIC TRIBUTE TO THE LEGIONS. But since, O Conscript Fathers, the gift of glory is conferred on these most excellent and gallant citizens by the honor of a monument, let us comfort their relations, to whom indeed this is the best consolation. The greatest comfort for their parents is that they have produced sons who have been such bulwarks of the republic; for their children that they will have such examples of virtue in their family; for their wives, that |