minister and carry out his principles. He does not need to spend his time, energy and money in self-advertisement. If the ruler should always be as good as Confucius requires, the system of educational election would be perfect. But, since the ruler is not always good, and the world has been progressive, China is going to change her absolute to a constitutional government. As soon as she shall have a constitutional government, she will have a party government. And as soon as she has a party government, she will have party elections, and modern aristocracy will grow in China. But, as the educational election is a system peculiar to the Chinese, they should keep the best of their own, and adopt only the best of their neighbors' systems, without their defects. By extending the principle of popular suffrage to just the right point, China will have a governmental system which surpasses the most sanguine hopes of American civil service reformers.

The election system of Confucius is the chief weapon for the destruction of class interests. This was appreciated by the physiocrats. They hold up as the ideal of political government, not Switzerland or England, but China,' because in other countries one did not find individual interest coming to the front. In England the political system gives too much power to the merchants; on the other hand, democracy gives too much power to the lower classes, and aristocracy, too much power to the higher classes. In China alone no one class tends to become dominant. This view of the physiocrats is very true. It is doubtless true that Quesnay was theorizing, and used China as a model because it was far away and he knew little about it, but in this instance his theory was justified by the facts.

'Cf. Quesnay's Despotisme de la Chine, first published in the Ephemérides du Citoyen in 1767 and reprinted in Oeuvres Economiques et Philosophiques de Quesnay, ed. Oncken, 1888, pp. 563-660.

CHAPTER VIII

ECONOMICS AND ETHICS

I. ECONOMICS AS THE BASIS OF ETHICS

IN the Confucian system, there are two great principles. One is called love, or humanity; the other, justice, or righteousness. It may be interesting to notice that, according to the Chinese etymology, the word love is formed from the word denoting man, or others, and the word justice from the word denoting self. Thus the primary meaning of the word love is a relation between persons; and that of the word justice is an aspect of the self. We love others, but we justify ourselves. Hence we should strictly control ourselves, according to the highest standard of morality, and treat others liberally, according to the ordinary level of human nature. Confucius says: "The superior man reasons about theoretical principles from the standpoint of himself, but lays down practical laws from the capabilities of the people." ' Therefore, regarding ourselves, Confucius puts ethical teaching above economic life,—in some cases, life itself should be sacrificed for the sake of virtue; but regarding society as a whole, he puts economic life before ethical teaching.

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The best illustration of this principle is given in the Analects. When Confucius went to Wei, Jan Yu acted as driver of his carriage. Confucius observed, "How numerous are the people!" Jan said, "Since they are thus nu

merous, what more shall be done for them?"

"Enrich

them," was the reply. "And when they have been enriched, what more shall be done?" Confucius said, "Instruct them".1

Before we can instruct the people, we must enrich them, no matter how few or many they are. This is a universal principle. The Canon of Poetry repeats three times the following two sentences: "Give them drink and give them food. Instruct them and teach them."

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If we understand in the beginning that Confucius gives two principles for the two classes of men, one for the officials and students, the other for the mass of common people at large, we shall avoid confusion. For the higher class, ethical life is first, but for the lower class, economic life is first. Confucius says: "The mind of great men is conversant with justice; the mind of small men is conversant with profit." In speaking of great men and small men, he refers to their social standing. This theory is very clearly stated by Tung Chung-shu when he says: “Busily seeking for wealth and profit, and fearing only the condition of want, this is the mind of common people; busily seeking for love and justice, and fearing always that they could not influence the people, this is the mind of ministers and great officials. Such a statement, of course, is only a theory, not fact. Yet we must understand that Confucius. has these two classes in his mind, and sets forth two different principles for them. On the one hand, he forbids the higher class, from emperor to student, to seek private gain. They should confine themselves to the ethical life.

1 Classics, vol. i, pp. 266-7.

2 Classics, vol. iv, pt. ii, pp. 418-420.

Classics, vol. i, p. 170.

History of Han, ch. Ivi.

On the

class to make profit, and Hence, for the governing

other hand, he allows the lower thinks that they ought to do so. of society, Confucius takes up the economic life of the people for the first consideration. The " Great Learning" describes the effects of a good government as follows: "The common people find pleasure in what they call their pleasure, and find profit in what they call their profit." We are sure that Confucius, in the program of his reformation, feels that economic betterment is the first item.2

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Unfortunately, since the Confucians of the Sung dynasty did not wholly understand the principles of Confucius and thought that he did not approve even talking about profits, the teachings of Confucius failed to be considered of great importance in the practical world, and the Chinese suffered a great deal through need of economic reforms. They made such a great mistake because they misunderstood the statements of Mencius and Tung Chung-shu. Mencius tells the King Hui of Liang: "Why must your Majesty use that word profit? What I am provided with are counsels concerning the principles of love and justice, and these are my only topics." Tung Chung-shu tells the Prince of Kiangtu: "The man of perfect virtue is thus: following strictly justice, not for the sake of profit; discussing thoroughly principle, not with the expectation of success.' This simply means virtue for virtue's sake. These two statements given by Mencius and Tung Chung-shu are quite good in themselves, but they do not mean that the economic problems should be entirely left out. They have their own writings, and we can find their economic principles even from the

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quotations of this treatise. They are talking to the king and the prince, and such men, of course, are forbidden by Confucius to talk about profits. We never expect to use the same prescription for everybody; why should we apply those statements to every one? Neither Confucius, nor Mencius, nor Tung Chung-shu, nor any great Confucian before the Sung dynasty, has ever said that the common people should not talk about profits. Moreover, the Confucians of the Sung dynasty did not distinguish the public profits from private profits, and left them both out of consideration. This has been a great obstacle to the economic development of China.

II. HARMONY OF ECONOMICS AND ETHICS

The reason the Confucians of the Sung dynasty fear to talk about profit is because they make the distinction between profit and justice too sharp, and think they are necessarily opposed to each other. But true Confucianism harmonizes economics and ethics, and identifies profit with justice. A true profit, it holds, is justice, and the immediate profit which opposes justice is, in the long run, not a profit at all. The essential of these two words, profit and justice, is the same thing, but expressed in different terms.

As Confucius lived in the stage of feudalism, and generally talked with princes, he did not like to mention the word profit, but used the word justice for its substitute. Since princes, as we know, generally care for profit, but not for justice; for wealth, but not for virtue; why should Confucius talk to them about profit instead of about justice? But, if Confucius only says to them that justice is good, and does not say that justice is a profit, they will not believe him, and will not practice justice. Therefore, Confucius points out very clearly that justice is a real profit, and that to prefer the immediate profit is only a suicidal policy.

This principle is thus set forth in the "Great Learning":