תמונות בעמוד
PDF
ePub

farmers. Since Li K'o lived shortly after Confucius, but much earlier than Mencius, his statement probably shows the facts of Confucius' age. He says:

Now, one man, having five mouths in all, cultivates the land of one hundred acres. He reaps annually from each acre one bushel and a half of grain; the total amount is one hundred and fifty bushels. Subtracting fifteen bushels for the taxation of one-tenth, there remain one hundred and thirty-five bushels. For food, each person consumes one bushel and a half monthly; five persons consume ninety bushels for the whole year. There remain forty-five bushels. One bushel is worth thirty coins; the total value is one thousand three hundred fifty coins. Subtracting three hundred coins for the expense of social gathering and religious worship, there remain one thousand fifty coins. For clothing, each person spends three hundred coins on the average; five persons spend one thousand five hundred for the whole year. There is a deficit of four hundred fifty. If they are so unlucky as to have expense for sickness and funeral, or for the extra impositions of government, such expenditure still has not been included in this account.1

This statement gives a statistical view of the unhappy condition of farmers, and is the most reliable information. which we now have. Since agriculture was the principal occupation of the ancient Chinese, the economic condition of the whole people must have been very bad. Hence Li K'o introduced his famous system of equalizing the price of grain for their relief. Such a bad condition was probably not confined to the state of Li K'o, but prevailed over the whole empire. It is no wonder that Confucius devotes his attention first to the economic life of the people.

1 History of Han, ch. xxiv.

2 See infra.

CHAPTER XVI

PARTICULAR EXPENDITURES

ALTHOUGH the standard of living may include all kinds of expenditures, we prefer to discuss some particular expenditures separately, in order to show the characteristics of Confucius' system. These expenditures are: the expenditure for a marriage, the expenditure for a funeral and mourning, the expenditure for ancestor-worship, and the expenditure for social intercourse. The theories of these expenditures are extremely complex; they are not only economic, but also sociological, political, philosophical, ethical and religious. Of course, we are most interested in the economic aspect. But, as we are studying the system of Confucius, we have to consider many other aspects which are peculiar to Confucius and are correlative to economics.

I. MARRIAGE

First, we shall discuss the expenditure for a marriage. Since Confucius makes marriage a necessity of human life, he reduces its expense to the minimum. According to the Canon of Rites, there are six rites for marriage. After the family of the girl has accepted the proposal, the first rite is "giving a choice" to her father; the second is "inquiring into the name" of the girl. These two rites are consummated at one time. The third is "giving the lucky result" of divination; the fourth is "giving engagement;" the fifth is first "asking about the date" of the wedding, and then announcing it. All these five rites are performed. by a proxy sent by the father of the bridegroom. The sixth

rite is "personal receiving," an act of the bridegroom himself.

The rite of "giving engagement" is performed by the use of a bundle of silk and two pieces of the fur of a deer. The bundle of silk contains five rolls; each roll is folded double, and is forty cubits in length. Three rolls are black, and the other two crimson. The two pieces of deer's fur can be used for dress. Besides "giving engagement," the other five rites are all performed by the use of a domestic goose for a present. This token is intended to represent the regularity and faithfulness of the relation of husband and wife. Requiring only five geese, five rolls of silk and two pieces of deer's fur, this ceremony of marriage is inexpensive. Of course, the expense of an American marriage can cut down to even less than this, but, according to Confucius' system, this is the lowest limit.

In the Canon of Poetry, there is a poem written by a heroic girl. She has promised to marry a man of Fêng, but his family wants to receive her before the rites of marriage are completed. She refuses to allow them to do so, on the ground that marriage is a most sacred thing and cannot be consummated without the full observance of rites. His family prosecutes her and causes her to be brought to But she insists that, if one single thing has not been presented, and one single rite has not been completed, she will not leave her home even if she sacrifices her life. Her poem runs as follows: "Although you have brought me to court, your offerings for the rites of marriage are not sufficient." It says again: It says again: "Although you have brought me by prosecution, I will not follow you.'

court.

[ocr errors]

By selecting this poem in his Canon for an example of a

1 Li Ki, bk. xviii, p. 172.

Classics, vol. iv, pt. i, pp. 27-8.

marriage that is good, not only morally, but also legally, Confucius shows that he does not approve of allowing people to marry without going through the six rites, on the pretense that they have not the means. Indeed, he regulates the relation of husband and wife very carefully in the beginning, and does not make marriage too easy for the young couple.

Although Confucius does not make marriage too easy, he makes it as simple as possible. He is most fond of music, and employs it for all fortunate occasions; yet he omits music from the ceremonies of marriage. Confucius says:

The family whose daughter is married, does not extinguish its candles for three nights, thinking of the separation that has taken place. The family that has received the bride, for three days has no music; the bridegroom is thinking that he is about to take the place of his parents.1

According to this expression, marriage is not a gay ceremony, but a solemn business through which the son assumes responsibilities of his own and feels that his parents are getting older. It should be quiet and sober. Therefore, the Record of Rites says that at the marriage ceremony, music is not employed, and that there is no congratulation on marriage.2

Confucius limits the expense of marriage to a minimum, but he cannot help making the feast necessary. Since he separates the two sexes very severely, he must not allow the new couple to keep so quiet as not to give a conspicuous notice to society. In order to mark the new relation between bride and bridegroom, a feast is necessary to notify the public. The Record of Rites says: "The bridegroom should make a feast and invite the people of the town and Ibid., bk. ix, p. 442.

1Li Ki, bk. v, p. 322.

1

his friends to attend it, in order to give its due importance to the separate position of man and woman." 1 Of course, this feast must cost something, but its expense cannot be saved because it has social and ethical value.

As the feast must necessarily be given by the bridegroom to his townsmen and his friends, although there is to be no congratulation, the guests cannot simply attend the feast without any social obligation. Hence the congratulation takes place under another name. It is not said to be a congratulation upon the marriage, but only a present for the entertainment of the guests. The language used by the messenger for such a congratulation is given by the "Details. of Rites:" "So-and-so has sent me. Having heard that you are having guests, he has sent me with this present.' Such a present may consist of four pots of spirits, ten pieces of dried meat, and a dog. Although it may not be too expensive, it will yet cost a family a good deal. As marriage is necessary in the social life, this expenditure is also necessary. In the present day, however, such a congratulation is directly expressed for the happiness of the wedding, and not for the gathering of the guests.

To-day, the Chinese still observe these rites of marriage in their essentials. But they increase the expense greatly. It would be much better to return to the rules of Confucius, and make marriage again simple and economical.

II. FUNERALS

2

Second, we shall study the expenditure for the rites of a funeral and mourning. This is the most important point in the religion of Confucius, and we cannot help discussing it at some length. We shall take up certain details first, and discuss the theory later.

1 Li Ki, bk. i, p. 78.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid., bk. xv. p. 76.

« הקודםהמשך »