certain rites to be observed, and he has not the necessary wealth, a superior man does not observe them, and that neither does he do so, when there are the rites, and he has the wealth, but the time is not suitable." When he speaks of the rites, he refers to the ethical considerations, the social orders, and all the other proper rules. These principles have been discussed above. We shall discuss the time element

now.

2

1

The principle of the time element is very broad; it takes into consideration all the things that are related to the period when the wealth is spent. Above all, however, the national spirit is a most important consideration. Ts'êng Tzu says: "When a nation is not well governed, the superior man is ashamed to observe all rites to the full. When a nation is extravagant, he shows an example of frugality. When a nation is frugal, he shows an example of the strict observance of all rites." Therefore, the national spirit is the chief barometer of the time, and determines the scale of spending. But we must understand that the superior man does not bend himself to follow the national spirit, but raises himself as a guide for the correction of his nation. This is the principle of the golden mean, that is to say, not adding anything to the prevailing habit, or tending toward either extreme, but drawing the nation of that age back and keeping it in the middle way.

66

Confucius says: When good order does not prevail in the state, one should not use the full dress as prescribed." And "Small Rules of Demeanor also says: " "When a

state is at the time of luxury and decay, the carriages are not carved and painted; the buff-coats are not adorned with ribbons and cords: and the dishes are not carved; the super

1 Li Ki, bk. ii, p. 152.

Ibid., bk. xi, p. 11.

2 Cf. ibid., p. 175.

ior man does not wear shoes of silk; and horses are not regularly supplied with grain. These five things are given as examples of showing frugality during times of national extravagance.

As China is an agricultural country, the condition of the crops is very important in judging of the time element. If the crop fails, consumption ought to be cut down. The eleventh book of the Record of Rites says: "If the year is not good and fruitful, the emperor wears white and plain robes, rides in the plain and unadorned carriage, and has no music at his meals." It says again: "If the year is not good and fruitful, the ruler wears linen, and sticks in his girdle a tablet made of bamboo instead of ivory . . . No earthworks are undertaken. The great officials do not make any new carriage for themselves." 2 Its first book says:

In bad years, when the grain of the season does not come to maturity, the ruler at his meals will not make the usual offering of the lungs [that is, he will not take more than one kind of meat]; nor will his horses be fed on grain. His special road will not be kept clean and swept, nor even at sacrifices will his musical instruments be suspended on their stands. Great officials will not eat the large-grained millet; and the students will not have music, even at their drinkings.3

In the Spring and Autumn, there is a principle that the construction of any public work should not be performed during a bad year. The fundamental idea is that, in a bad year, all expenditures should be cut down to the minimum. Since the work of construction is most expensive, the Spring and Autumn takes it as an example. But we must understand that, in ancient times, the public work was done by

1 Li Ki, bk. xv, p. 81.

3 Ibid., bk. i, p. 106.

2 Ibid., bk. xi, pp. 2, 4.

forced labor; hence, if the people were employed in a bad year, they would suffer more severely than usual. Since hired labor was established in the Sung dynasty,' public work is now advisable for the help of the poor in a bad year. This scheme is carried out in order to give the people public employment instead of alms, because thus they can receive wages.

When a crop is bad, not only should human beings cut down their consumption, but the gods also should suffer for it. The ninth book of Record of Rites says:

The Cha with its eight sacrifices serves to record the condition of the people throughout all the quarters of the empire. If in any quarter the year has not been good, the gods of that quarter are excluded from such sacrifices held in the imperial state, in order to notify these people that they should be very careful in the use of their wealth. If those quarters have had a good year, such sacrifices are opened to their gods, in order to please those people, that they should have enjoyment.2

By this rule, the gods share sorrow and joy with the people. In fact, in a bad year, religious expense must be cut down. Confucius says that "victims lower than a man's standard requires should be used." 3

place.

Supplementing the time element, is a consideration for the The Canon of History says: “Loving the products of your land only, the heart will be good." This means that you will not fall into temptation, if you have no desire for the luxurious things from other lands. This seems more ethical than economic.

1 See infra.

2 Cf. Li Ki, bk. ix, p. 434.

3 Ibid., bk. xviii, p. 166.

4 Cf. Classics, vol. iii, pt. ii, p. 403.

But there is also a real economic teaching on this point. The Record of Rites says:

What the land does not produce will not be used by a superior man in performing the rites. . . . If mountaineers were to seek to use fish and turtles in their rites, or the dwellers near lakes, deer and pigs, the superior man would say of them that they did not know the nature of those usages.1

This is both economic and economical. On the one hand, the rites are easily performed, because they do not require certain things from another land. But on the other hand, money is saved, because it spares the unnecessary expense of getting something away from their own land.

'Li Ki, bk. viii, pp. 395-6.

CHAPTER XIII

HAPPINESS FOR BOTH RICH AND POOR

WHEN We study the proposition that consumption should accord with one's financial condition, we see that Confucius would make everyone contented with his own lot. But we shall inquire further to see how Confucius creates happiness for both the rich and the poor. For, if we say that one's consumption should be according to his means, the consumer might still feel economic pressure because he cannot do otherwise. But, if we say that one always finds pleasure in whatever he consumes, independent of the amount, then the consumer is really a happy man; and this is especially true when he is poor. In the former case, the consumer adapts himself to his condition, and needs some effort to regulate his wants. In the latter case, the consumer raises himself above his condition, and pays no attention to his wants. It is the highest ideal in economic life, and it is nevertheless very practicable for everyone. This is the value of the teachings of Confucius.

I. HAPPINESS OF THE RICH

1. Contentment with Means Possessed

For the consumption of the rich, the principle is contentment with means possessed. Wealth does not make the rich happy, but contentment does. Confucius sometimes said of Prince Ching of Wei that he knew the economy of a family well. When he began to have means, he said, “Ha! here is a collection!" When they were a little increased,