the width to which it is cut, which, in the silver coins, is generally double that of the coin wanted. When thus cut, the planchets were until lately subjected to a second rolling, to give them more exactly the thickness required in the coin: this was accomplished by a finishing rolling machine, made tighter by wedges and screws; and altogether a very clumsy contrivance. Of late, Mr. Barton, comptroller of the mint, has brought into use a far more accurate mode of effecting the object in view, by drawing the slips of metal between dies, in the manner of drawing wire. This has produced a uniformity in the thickness, of great practical consequence, and reduced the remedy on gold coin from forty to twelve grains troy. We regret that it is too complicated for description in this place.

The blank cutting out press is now resorted to; and twelve of these are fixed round an immense wheel, turned by steam, and having a large regulating fly on its own axis. The whole of the presses are fixed on a circular stone basis, and form a handsome colonnade, in a circular room of the mint: they operate so simply and uniformly that boys are employed to feed them. Each press resembles, in appearance, the common fly press, used to take seal and other impressions, and is worked on the principle of a weight used as a fly. FF is the iron framework, supporting the action of the screw S, which terminates in a steel punch, P, fitting exactly into the die underneath it: to the punch is attached a circular piece of iron, which holds down the metal when the punch rises from it. On G, at the top of the screw, is fixed the arm A, furnished with a weight at one end, and striking at the other against a wooden spring which checks the motion after a stroke: Above this is seen a spindle, B, connected with another arm which consists of two parts. DE is immediately operated upon by the tooth, or large cog, C, of the immense wheel of which we have spoken, and of which a portion is shown in fig. 3: that is, the cog of this wheel impinging on E produces the stroke which turns the screw and lifts up the punch from the die. At H is a rod connected with this upper lever by a joint; the other end of the rod being connected with a bended lever, shown in fig. 4, from the other arm of which descends a rod with a piston affixed to it. This piston moves in a close cylinder, and, when drawn up, creates a vacuum; when the pressure of the atmosphere causes a reaction, and the moment the other end E escapes, or slips from the tooth T of the great wheel, the reaction of the piston draws the joint H back, and makes the screw turn round in that direction, which causes the punch to penetrate the die. To stop the machine a catch rises up and hooks the lever, so that it cannot return.

I, fig. 4, is moveable on a joint L and thrown upwards by a spring seen underneath. To this spring a cord N is fastened, which the boy who feeds the machine works by a common treadle. The air cylinders mentioned are contained in hollow pilasters, which seem to sustain the dome at the top of the apartment.

The blanks thus cut are, if needful, finely rectified as to weight by filing; but this, according

to the improved process, is now often not needed : and the pieces are now ready for milling. This operation is not shown in our mint, but has been thus described by a gentleman connected with it. Two steel bars or rulers, having their adjacent edges cut or fluted, are placed parallel to each other, and the piece of money is made to run on its edge between them. One bar is immoveable, being fastened down by clamps to a cast-iron plate, forming the base of the machine; the other bar is prevented from rising, but has the liberty of moving backwards and forwards in the direction of its length.

The coining-press, properly so called, and the most ingenious and important of the whole series of machines, is shown in perspective in Plate III. FF is the frame work, screwed by bolts on a basis of stone. SS the screw, on the top of which is seen the fly A B, the whole being moved by the spindle connected with a moving power in an upper apartment. The weights at the extremities of the arms of the fly are limited in their motion, by cheeks affixed to iron beams, E and F, extending from one column to the other: these are made very strong; the columns are of oak. The recoil of the fly, after having struck a coin, is checked by its coming against a piece, G, fitted into the tube H, fixed to the iron beam E, and having a concealed spring to ease the blow. The upper moveable die is beneath the screw; and turns round with it whilst making the impression. The screw is cylindrical at each end, and is fitted in very accurate bearings, adjustible by screws above and below; between these it is cut into a worm or screw, and is received in a proper nut, but it depends on this only for its ascent and descent, the fittings at the ends keeping it vertical. The coin is therefore struck with a twisting motion which is supposed to give it a better impression.

The blanks are placed in this machine by a set of very ingenious contrivances: we can only show their general appearance at T, where a sliding pair of tongs takes in the small tube into which the blanks are put, ten or twelve at once, and takes them away one at a time. The lever L is furnished with a joint near the lower end, and two springs, which act in the same manner as the springs in the back of a knife, to keep it straight, and carry the tongs forward; but, if any obstruction arises, the lever bends. The centre of the lever is adjustable to regulate the length of its motion by a sliding centre, fitted upon a vertical bar.

We have thus described the principal machines used at the mint in the art of coining, properly so called. Those for reducing the silver to proper ingots are also very creditable to the establishment; but our limits prevent us from entering into a particular account of them. On the whole we apprehend that while important ends of public security, and the defence of the ignorant from imposture, are answered by the monopoly of this art by government, it would receive great improvement in private hands; and has, at the present time, its due share of multiplied offices and machinery about it, compared to what we should find in case it were pursued for private emolument. For the trial of the pix, see Pix.

and to Nollet, professor of physics, whom he succeeded. He removed in 1780 to Paris, on being admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and became the coadjutor of Bossut, in a course of lectures on hydrodynamics. Quitting Mezieres finally in 1783, he composed a Treatise on Statics, afterwards used for the Polytechnic school. Through the influence of Condorcet, he was made minister of the marine in 1792, and held the portfolio of minister of war during the active service of general Servan. As a member of the executive council of government, he disgraced himself by signing the order for the execution of Louis XVI., and shortly after resigned. He was now engaged, with other men of science, in improving the manufacture of gunpowder. When the Normal School was founded, with which he became connected, he published his Geometric Descriptive. He also principally contributed to the establishment of the Polytechnic school; after which, in 1796, he was sent into Italy, to collect, or more properly speaking to plunder, the treasures of art and science from the countries conquered by the republic. In 1798 he accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt; on his return he resumed his functions as professor at the Polytechnic School, in the success of which he greatly shared; while the attachment which he manifested to Buonaparte led to his being nominated a member of the senate. The emperor also bestowed on him the title of count of Pelusium, the senatorial lordship of Liege, and an estate in Westphalia. He was a grand cordon of the legion of honor, and, a little before the Russian expedition, received a present of 200,000 francs. On the fall of his benefactor he was expelled the Institute and deprived of all his employments. On this he is said to have become disordered in his faculties, and died July 28th, 1818. Besides the above work, Monge published Description de l'Art de fabriquer les Canons, 4to.; and Application de l'Analyse à la Geometrie des surfaces, 4to.; as well as various memoirs on mathematical and physical science.

MON'GER, n. s. Sax. mangene, a trader; from Sax. mangian, to trade. A dealer; seller; and sometimes a meddler in any thing. A word seldom or never used alone, or otherwise than after the name of a commodity to express a vender of that commodity: as, a fishmonger; a newsmonger, &c.

Whore-mongers and adulterers God will judge. Heb. xiii. 4. Do you know me ?-Yes, excellent well, you are a fish-monger. Shakspeare. Neither did his departed soul want, somewhere, as is reported, suffrages and oblations of mass-mongers in this behalf. Bp. Hall.

The impatient states-monger
Could now contain himself no longer.

Hudibras.

MONGHIR, a considerable and well culti vated district of Bahar, Hindostan, situated between 26° and 28° of N. lat. To the north it is bounded by Tyrhoot and Purnah; on the south by Ramgur and Birbhoom; to the east by Rajemal and Birbhoom; and to the west by the Bahar district and Ramgur. In 1784 this district, in all its dimensions, contained 8270 square miles,

of which only 2817 are in the Boglipoor division on both sides of the Ganges.

Monghir seems formerly to have been inhabited only by Thudufarkers, of the class denominated Rick, who resided in the woods. One of these whose, habitation was upon a rock in the Ganges, is said, with the assistance of Vishwa Karma, the god and patron of artists, to have built a fort, and named it Monghir. The country is described as being at that time a complete uncultivated jungle, containing a temple dedicated to the goddess Chandi. The district is now one of the best cultivated in the Company's dominion. The fields in the neighbourhood of the town are divided into squares, and cultivated with great care. They produce a great variety of leguminous plants, mustard seed, castor oil, opium, and various grains.

In this district is now a hot-well, named Seetacoond, situated about half a mile from the banks of the Ganges, in a plain backed by hills and rocks. The spring is considerable, and the water is too hot to admit keeping the hand long in it, yet there are cold springs on the sides, at the distance of about twenty paces. In 1801 the inhabitants of the Monghir, or Boglipoor district, were estimated at 600,000.

MONGHIR, a town and fortress of Bahar, situated on the south bank of the river Ganges, in lat. 25° 23′ N., long. 86° 38′ E.

The fort, which is of great antiquity, is large, surrounded by a wall and deep ditch, and most beautifully situated on the Ganges, which, in the rainy season, forms here a prodigious expanse or water. It was the chief residence of sultan Sujah during his government of the Bengal province. Subsequently it became the residence of Cossim Ali Khan, at the time he intended to throw off all dependence on the English. He added considerably to the fortifications, but it was taken by the English after a siege of nine days. The point of the rock at this place, which withstands the whole force of the Ganges, is con sidered as a sacred bathing place, and during the season the crowd here is prodigious. The place is at present occupied by invalid sepoys, their commandant having possession of the ruins of the palace.

Travelling distance from Monghir to Calcutta, by Birbhoom, 275 miles; by Moorshedabad, 301

miles.

MONGOLIA, a region of Central Asia, north and north-west by China, and situated between that empire and Asiatic Russia. Its limits are vague, and the country is only traversed by the wandering hordes of Mongols, or Moguls, who have been so celebrated in the annals of Asia. At present they have lost all settled dominion, and are split into a number petty states, dependent upon Russia or China. The proper limits of Mongolia are, to the east, the country of the Mantchous; to the west, the mountains continued northwards from the Beloor and the lake Palcati Nor; to the west of this is the country of the Tartars; on the south Mongolia is bounded partly by China, and partly by Turkistan. Nearly the whole of this immense territory consists of a level plain, which borders on the Altai, and other mountain chains that form the Russian

frontier. It includes a considerable part of the desert of Shamo, or Cobi; the habitable part is composed entirely of pasturage. The chief vegetable produce is rhubarb. In this region rise some of the greatest rivers of Russia and China, the Hoangho, the Amour, and even the Irtysch; but scarcity of water is a common want here. The inhabitants are distinguished decidedly from both the Turks andTartars. They are muscular and strongly built; of middle size; their faces square, broad, and flat; their noses particularly low, and their eyes oblique, small, and dark. They have thick lips, a short chin, little beard, and large ears. Their black and strong hair is almost wholly shaven off, except a tuft on the crown. The common dress consists of sheep or lambs' skins, with the wool inwards, which retain a scent which is perceptible at some distance. The rich wear cotton lined with skins. Their food consists entirely of milk and flesh, and they esteem horse-flesh a delicacy. Their favorite liquor is fermented mare's milk, or kounuss. Their tents are composed of a thick, gray, or white felt, of a conical form, with a hole at the top. They use tea, mead, and tobacco; but their horses are their pride, and they are peculiarly expert in training them. These horses are in general small, but some of them would be considered handsome in Europe: their sheep are of that species common throughout Tartary, distinguished by large tails. The country abounds in deer and other game, particularly wild horses and mules, and animals of the elk and lynx species. A few sables are found, though not of great beauty. The internal government is here carried on by native princes, called khutuktus, or regulos, who, at the time of the last conquest, were divided into forty-nine standards or tribes. Tribute to any power is the extent of their allegiance; but in many cases, instead of paying, they receive it. They are rude, but frank and hospitable, gay and cheerful, and spend a considerable part of their time in sports and exercises. Polygamy is permitted, but little practised. They have national songs and music, but the latter is said to be very disagreeable. They profess the religion of Fo, and have resident among them Lamas, who pretend to the gift of immortality, and are held in the highest reverence by the people, while, however, they are very many of them unable even to read. The doctrine of the transmigration of souls is an established part of their creed. Besides the Mongols proper a number of other nations are found here, of which the principal are the Kalkas and the Eluths. The Buriats of Asiatic Russia are of Mongol origin.

MON'GREL, adj. Sax. mang; Belg. mengen, to mix. Of a mixed breed: written also mungrel.

Base, groveling, worthless wretches; Mongrels in faction; poor faint-hearted traitors. Addison.

His friendships, still to few confined,
Were always of the middling kind;
No fools of rank, or mongrel breed,
Who fain would pass for lords indeed.

Swift's Miscellanies.

And in that town a dog was found, As many dogs there be, Both mongrel, puppy, whelp, and hound, And curs of low degree. Goldsmith. the interior, north-easterly from Mosambique. MONJOUS, a people of Eastern Africa, in They appear to occupy but a small territory, and the only authentic account we have of them, is from a caravan with slaves, ivory, &c., which arrived at Mosambique in 1809, during Mr. Salt's residence there. The distance of their country from the coast is conjectured by the time which the caravan had employed in traversing it, i. e. about two months; but, as a consitravelling period was only forty-five days, which, derable period had been spent in rest, the real and 700 miles. This people are said to be black at fifteen miles a day, would give between 600 negroes of the ugliest description, with high hair. Their weapons are bows and arrows; and cheek bones, thick lips, and small knots of woolly they have a mode of exciting flame by rubbing two pieces of hard wood against each other, similar to that described by Bruce, as practised by a tribe near Sennear. They appeared milder than the same tribes in the neighbourhood of Mosambique.

MON'ISH, v. a. MON'ISHER, n. s. ΜΟΝΙΤΙΟΝ, MONITOR,

Το

Latin moneo. advise; admonish;

correct monition is advice; hint; information: a monitor,

MON'ITORY, adj. & n. s.. one who gives hints or advice, or who informs or minds of a duty: monitory, conveying instruction or admonition: also the instruction or admonition conveyed.

And sithe that she and I accorde
Have upon him misericorde,
For I you praie, and eke moneste,

Chaucer.

Nought to refus in our requeste. Monish him gently, which shall make him both willing to amend, and glad to go forward in love.

Ascham's Schoolmaster.

You need not be a monitor to the king; his learning is eminent: be but his scholar, and you are safe.

Bacon.

A king of Hungary took a bishop in battle, and kept him prisoner; whereupon the pope writ a monitory to him, for that he had broken the privilege of holy church.

Id.

We have no visible monition of the returns of any other periods, such as we have of the day, by successive light and darkness. Holder on Time. We can but divine who it is that speaks; whether Persius himself, or his friend and monitor, or a third person. Dryden. Unruly ambition is deaf, not only to the advice of friends, but to the counsels, and monitions of reason itself. L'Estrange. Losses, miscarriages, and disappointments, are monitory and instructive. The pains that come from the necessities of nature are monitors to us to beware of greater mischiefs. Locke.

Id.

Monks, in some respects, agree with regulars, as the substantial vows of religion; but in other respects monks and regulars differ; for that regulars, vows excepted, are not tied up to so strict a rule of Auliffe's Parergon.

life as monks are.

Rise, rise, Roscommon, see the Blenheim muse, The dull constraint of monkish rhyme refuse. Smith. The dronish monks, the scorn and shame of manhood,

Rouse and prepare once more to take possession, And nestle in their ancient hives again. Rowe. He had left off his monkhood too, and was no longer obliged to them. Atterbury.

Those publick charities are a greater ornament to this city than all its wealth, and do more real honour to the reformed religion, than redounds to the church of Rome from all those monkish and superstitious foundations of which she vainly boasts. Id.

MONK, denoted anciently a person who retired from the world to give himself up wholly to God, and to live in solitude and abstinence.' The original word μovaxos, solitary, is derived from povos, alone. The persecutions which attended the first ages of the Gospel forced some Christians to retire from the world, and live in deserts and unfrequented places, in hopes of finding that peace and comfort among beasts which were denied them among men. And this being the case of some very extraordinary persons, their example gave so much reputation to retirement that the practice was continued when the reason of its commencement ceased. After the empire became professedly Christian instances of this kind were numerous; and those whose security had obliged them to live in solitude became afterwards united into societies. The mystic theology also, which gained ground towards the close of the third century, contributed to produce the same effect, and to drive men into solitude for the purposes of enthusiastic devotion. St. Cyril of Alexandria, in one of his letters, censures certain monks in Egypt, who, under pretence of devoting themselves to prayer, led a lazy scandalous life; a censure but too often applicable to monks in general.

VOL. XV.

The ancient monks were distinguished into solitaries, cœnobites, and sarabaites. The solitary were those who lived alone, remote from all towns, as do still some of the hermits. The cœothers in the same house, and under the same nobites were those who lived in community with superiors. See CENOBITE. The sarabaites were strolling monks, having no fixed rule or residence. The houses of monks again were of two kinds, viz. monasteries and lauræ. See LAURA and MONASTERY. Those we now call monks are cœnobites, who live together in a monastery: who make vows of living according to a certain rule established by the founder, and wear a habit which distinguishes their order. Those that are endowed, or have a fixed revenue, are most properly called monks; as the Chartreux, Benedictines, Bernardines, &c. The Mendicants, or those that beg, as the Capuchins and Franciscans, are more properly called religious and friars; though the names are frequently confounded.

The first monks were those of St. Anthony; who, in the fourth century, formed them into a regular body, engaged them to live in society with each other, and prescribed to them fixed rules for the direction of their conduct. See AN

THONY

These regulations, which Anthony had made in Egypt, were soon introduced into Palestine and Syria by his disciple Hilarion. Almost about the same time, Aones and Eugenius, with their companions Gaddanas and Azyzas, instituted the monastic order in Mesopotamia and the adjacent countries; and their example was followed with such rapid success, that in a short time the whole east was filled with a lazy set of mortals, who, abandoning all human connexions, advantages, and concerns, wore out a languishing and miserable life amidst the hardships of want, and various kinds of suffering, in order, as they pretended, to arrive at a more close and rapturous .communication with God and angels. From the east this gloomy institution passed into the west, and first into Italy and its islands; though it is uncertain who transplanted it thither. St. Martin, bishop of Tours, erected the first monasteries in Gaul, and recommended this religious solitude with such efficacy, that his funeral is said to have been attended by no, fewer than 2000 monks. From hence the monastic discipline extended through the other countries of Europe. There were besides the monks of St. Basil (called in the east Calogeri, from kalos yɛpwv, good old man), and those of St. Jerome, the hermits of St. Augustine, and afterwards those of St. Benedict and St. Bernard; at length came those of St. Francis and St. Dominic, with a legion of others. See BENEDICTINES, CALOGERI, &C.

Towards the close of the fifth century the monks, who had formerly lived only for themselves in solitary retreats, and had never thought of assuming any rank among the sacerdotal order, were gradually distinguished from the populace, and endowed with such opulence and honorable privileges that they found themselves in a condition to claim an eminent station among the supports and pillars of the Christian community. The fame of their piety and sanctity was so great that bishops and presbyters were often

E