§ 1. Introductory Remarks.

On the Metrical System of the

in the churches of the East and of the

has transfused its spirit into the Christian Church more completely than the book of Psalms'. The first Christians The first Christians seem to have found in it an adequate expression of their deepest feelings'. Eliciting its spiritual meanings, and interpreting its doctrinal teaching under the light of a perfect revelation, they adopted the Psalter as the foundation and the model of their devotions, retaining its most striking characteristics for many centuries in their hymnody. Thus too

1 As an illustration it may be observed that the total number of direct quotations from the Old Testament in the New is 283; of these 116 are from the psalter. A similar proportion is found in citations by most of the early Fathers.

* Christian education in Syria began with the psalms. Thus Assem. T. III. p. 7. 937, "Tirones primum psalmos Davidicos legant; deinde Novum Testamentum, mox Vetus."

A full account of the use of psalms and hymns in the early Church is given by Bingham,

to the present day, all lyrical expression of religious thought and feeling seems, so to speak, an echo or adaptation of the strains of the "sweet Psalmist of Israel."

For this result there are obvious and sufficient reasons. Of the book of Job it has been observed that it differs remarkably from all other productions of the Hebrew mind: of the Psalter, on the contrary, it is true that it exhibits more fully and exactly than any book the peculiar characteristics of the Israelites. It represents a spiritual state, which, with all its grave defects, was

singularly susceptible to religious im pressions, capable of receiving and reproducing communications from a higher sphere. Nor is there any book in ancient literature, profane or sacred, which shews so wide and perfect a sympathy with man in his weakness, and in his strength, in his joy, and in his sufferings. Deep humility and oneness of mind with the poor are traits, of which scarcely a shadow is found in the lyrical poetry of those Gentile nations, which attained the highest degree of culture: as expressed in this book they present a direct contrast to the characteristics of Hellenic genius. The Psalmists one and all, but none so perfectly as David, to whom the book owes its traditional title, while opening their own heart with all its depths of agony and earnestness of aspiration, give full expression to the yearnings of mankind. We find, how ever, throughout a combination of feelings elsewhere unknown, or imperfectly developed; a deep sense of inherent sin and unworthiness, together with a consciousness of integrity in purpose and intent; a full recognition of a standard of morals and holiness, so perfect as to involve the condemnation of the sinner, yet withal a loving trust in the mercy and grace of the lawgiver and judge: in short a true preparation for the special work of Christ.

And independently of these characteristics, which attract the spiritual in stinct, the book is full of interest to men of every form of intellectual culture. The scholar and the poet, the philosopher and the historian, find in it ample materials for thoughtful study. Connected probably by one psalm (Ps. xc) with the dawn of the national life, its most important compositions belong to the period when that life was fully developed; when it rose by a single bound to the summit of power and real greatness, from which indeed it speedily declined, but which left undying reminiscences in the national mind. Upon that epoch, and on its productions, David has set his royal seal. His character, singularly gifted, stands out in vivid portraiture, in its light and in its dark shadows; forcing an interest by turns of admiration and sympathy, of anxiety and surprise. And second only

to the great national hero, men of genius, Solomon, Asaph and the Korahites, record the feelings of the best portion of the people through the varying phases of their fortunes; the splendour of the Solomonian age, the long years of chequered vicissitudes which intervened between that period and the Babylonian captivity, the deep depression and intense yearnings of the exiled people, and their mingled sorrows and gladness after their partial restoration. At each period questions of permanent interest touching the destinies of man, and the relative claims of morality and religion, are discussed, if not finally settled: nor has poetry of any age shewn a fuller appreciation of nature in all its moods, in its majesty and in its sweetness, in its terrors and in its repose: thronged, as it were, with multitudinous forms of life, the atmosphere in which the Hebrew lyrist' moves is bright with one all-pervading light, which gives a meaning and an object to them all.

No book has been so fully commented on: the literature of the psalms makes up a library. Nearly all the great Fathers of the Church have contributed volumes of exposition. They were chiefly concerned with the spiritual and practical bearings, and laboured for the most part under the disadvantage of ignorance of the Hebrew, and disregard both of the literal meaning and historical connection, yet special interest attaches to their labours: their minds are in real inner sympathy with the Psalmists; and with the quick apprehension of Greeks and Latins, developed by careful training, such men as Origen, Eusebius, Basil and Chrysostom, Hilary, Ambrose and Augustine, readily seized the clues to the sequence of thought and feeling. Jerome, however, stands out among them as the true father of exegetical and critical commentary. The interpretation of the psalter owes more to him than scholars are wont to recognize: he combined a fair knowledge of Hebrew with an acute judgment and strong practical sense. Medieval Christianity did good service in its way; but, following closely in the track of the Fathers, it effected little for the exe

1 Compare Euripides, 'Medea,' 826—830.

gesis and criticism of the psalter. With the reformation came a new epoch of light and life. Mercer and Calvin, entering at once with vigour upon the study of Hebrew, took a place which subsequent labours have not superseded: in fact a literature so copious soon sprang up that, continued and amplified by a succession of industrious critics, among whom Rudinger, Venema and Agellius hold the foremost place, it threatened to become useless from its very extent. We owe to Rosenmüller a full and judicious presentation of the most important results of previous labours, including those of Rabbinical writers, especially Kimchi, Aben-Ezra, and Rashi, together with a well-considered, and on the whole a satisfactory, comment. Within the last few years numbers of able critics have bestowed great and successful labour upon the book. In Germany much has been done for the historical exegesis, and still more for the grammatical and philological elucidation of the psalms. The work of Hengstenberg, though somewhat defective in judgment, well deserves the high position which it holds in England and Germany. Delitzsch, inferior to no commentator in ability, and superior to most in oriental and general learning, combines a warm and deep sympathy with a keen appreciation of the Psalmists' tone of thought. Ewald brings his singular power of insight to bear upon difficult questions of interpretation; though his attempt to construct an historical sequence on internal evidence is generally and justly regarded as a failure'. The commentary of Hup

1 The results of this attempt have been before the English public by four scholars, who have divested it of much of its apparent harshness, and commended it by a graceful translation, and notes remarkable for conciseness and point. See 'The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, &c.,' by Four Friends, 2nd ed. 1870. But, as a matter of fact, it is certain that those results are far from approving themselves to Ewald's countrymen, none differing from him more widely in detail than those whose theological prepossessions come nearest to his own. The calm dispassionate judgment of Köster is that "Ewald's attempt to arrange the psalms in chronological order cannot lead to any positive results, a fact sufficiently shewn by the astounding divergences of hypotheses touching the age of the psalms," see Die Psalmen,' p. 7, note. And again (p. 15), "the extraordinary discre

feld would approach near to excellence, were his historical and religious instincts on a par with his acute discernment in matters of philology and criticism. Hitzig holds a place of his own, deservedly high; but, though helpful to the scholar, he is wholly unsafe as a guide to the student. The brief commentary of Köster is chiefly useful for the light it throws on the structure of the psalms (see Appendix): that of Moll in Lange's Bibelwerk' is accurate, full of interesting information, and written in a devout and reverent spirit. In England the commentary of Mr Perowne is valuable both for its intrinsic merit, and as presenting in a readable form the results of German criticism, especially as developed by Hupfeld; that of Dr Kay is remark, able for independent research, and that of Bishop Wordsworth for varied and profound erudition. The late Dr Mill bestowed great labour upon this book; but the results have not been published. Among other commentaries accessible to English readers, those of Dr Phillips, Dr Jebb, and Canon Hawkins may be consulted with advantage; and special value must be attached to the 'Introduction to the Study and Use of the Psalms' by the late Rev. J. F. Thrupp.

§ 2. Title.

The general Hebrew title of the books is Tehillim, "praises," or "songs of praise," or Sepher Tehillim, "book of praises." This title, though open to pancy between the historical interpretations of the psalter is of itself a strong warning (Warnungszeichen) not to mix up insecure hypotheses with what can be historically proved.

or תלים contracted to תהלין or תהלים 3

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objection as not being universally applicable, yet correctly and fairly expresses the great characteristic of the book, of which the supreme object is to declare the glory of God. The title by which it is designated in the New Testament, Luke xx. 42; Acts i. 20, and in all Christian versions, viz. vaλuoí, "Psalms," or collectively, Psalter," Varpov, is derived, through the Latin Vulgate, from the Alexandrian or Septuagint Version: the word corresponds in meaning to a title prefixed to several psalms (e.g. iii. iv. v. vi), in Hebrew mizmor (pp). It refers rather to the form, as a poem to be sung with a musical accompaniment, than to the spirit, or religious character of the compositions; still it is a term which applies equally to all, and it expresses the connection with liturgical services, while any original deficiency in spiritual significance has been supplied by its association with the devotions of the Church.

§3. Division.

The psalter is divided into five books, each of which is distinctly marked by a doxology at the close; that at the end of the fifth differing from the others only in extent. This division is of great antiquity, certainly older than the Alexandrian Version: the doxologies may have been added when the collection of the whole, or of a considerable portion, sc. of the first two books, was completed. The resemblance between this division and that of the Pentateuch has been long since remarked, as by Hippolytus and Epiphanius ( De Mens. et Pond.' c. 6). Thus, too, in the Hebrew Midrash on Ps. i. 1: "Moses gave the five books of the law to the Israelites, and, as a counterpart to them, David gave the psalms consisting of five books." It is important as bearing independent testimony to the antiquity of the corresponding division of the Mosaic work. Delitzsch supposes that it may point to an internal harmony between the fivefold enunciation of the law, and the fivefold response of the national heart; a suggestion which, though somewhat fanciful, rests upon a just appreciation of the characteristics of the Pentateuch and the Psalter, which together complete

the representation of the principles and feelings of the ancient Church.

Each of these five books has very distinct characteristics. The first contains 41 psalms: one of these is introductory, and may have been prefixed together with the second, when the original collection was made, not improbably by Solomon himself, or by one of the School of Levites: two others, the 10th and 33rd, have no inscription; the 10th, as it would seem, being a continuation of the 9th psalm; the 33rd, for some unknown reason, it may be by an accident in transcription: thirty-seven are assigned to David; an assignment which, as will be shewn in the following notes, is in most cases sufficiently justified by internal evidence. The name Jehovah is used constantly, though not exclusively, throughout this book.

The second book has thirty-one psalms, xlii-lxxii. The first seven are attributed to the sons of Korah, or eight, if we include the 43rd-which, however, is a second part of the 42nd: one, the 50th, to Asaph; eighteen to David; two are anonymous, lxvi. lxvii (see notes); and one is ascribed to Solomon. In this book the inscriptions are remarkable for the general fulness of the historical notices. The name Elohim occurs so frequently as to be a marked characteristic. The doxology at the close of Ps. lxxii. combines the two names, Elohim and Jehovah, in a form which may possibly have been intended to point out the characteristics of both books.

The third book, of much less extent, contains but seventeen psalms, lxxiiilxxxix. Eleven are attributed to Asaph; four to the sons of Korah, interrupted, however, by Ps. lxxxvi, which is entitled "A prayer of David;" one of the four, lxxxviii, bears also the name of Heman; one, lxxxix, that of Ethan. The liturgical character of this book is marked by musical terms in the inscriptions. As will be shewn in the notes, the historical references are weighty and numerous. The divine names Jehovah and Elohim are used with nearly equal frequency.

The fourth book has seventeen psalms, xc-cvi. One bears the name of Moses; ten are anonymous; the last five are

ascribed to David. The name Jehovah is used throughout.

The fifth book is the largest in extent, containing forty-four psalms, cvii -cl: the first is anonymous, the three following (cviii-cx) are attributed to David; three are anonymous, and have the word "Hallelujah" in place of an inscription; six are without name or inscription (cxiv-cxix); fifteen (cxxcxxxiv) are called Songs of Degrees, of which one (cxxvii) is ascribed to Solomon, two (cxxxi, cxxxiii) to David; one, cxxxv, is called "Hallelujah," A Psalm of Praise, and the two following are anonymous; eight (cxxxviii-cxlv) bear the name of David; the last four begin each with the Hallelujah, and form a complete doxology. The name Jehovah predominates, but not to the exclusion of Elohim; the proportion is fairly represented in the closing psalm, in which Jehovah occurs twice, and Elohim once. On the formation of the psalter, see § 14.

$4. Authorship.

The first question which presents itself, and to which all others touching the origin and form of this collection are subordinate, touches the authorship of the several psalms. From the preceding analysis it will be seen that the old and canonical tradition of the Hebrews assigns more than two-thirds to authors: seventy-three to David, two to Solomon, twelve to Asaph, twelve to the sons of Korah, one to Ethan, and one to Moses. Forty-nine are anonymous.

If, therefore, the authority of the inscriptions were admitted, the question so far as regards one hundred and one psalms would be settled; but serious doubts have been raised, and are still entertained, by critics; and we have to inquire, first, what grounds there are for impugning or maintaining that authority; and secondly, what kind or degree of evidence is supplied by an independent examination of the psalms.

It is scarcely necessary to dwell upon the much later, but very prevalent, tradition which assigned the whole psalter to David. It is true that the psalms are quoted in the New Testament under the name of David, but it is admitted that this title merely bears witness to

the customary language of the Hebrews in our Lord's time, and is justified by the axiom, "a potiore fit nominatio." There are indications of such a usage in the second Book of Chronicles (xxiii. 18), where the psalmody of the temple is assigned in general terms to David, either as the orderer, or, as the Hebrew' probably signifies, the chief composer. From a notice in the 2nd Maccabees (ii. 13) it is evident that at that time the psalter was known as the Book of David (rà Toû Aavíd), and that the collection, bearing this general title, was believed to have been completed by Nehemiah. Rabbinical writers generally, and many Christian Fathers, accepted this title without hesitation or inquiry. At present no theologians consider it as a tenable position: indeed they could not do so without disregarding plain statements, not only in the inscriptions, but in numerous psalms.

§ 5. On the Inscriptions. Before we consider the objections raised against the inscriptions in general, attention may be called to these points. (1) It was to be expected a priori that lyrical compositions would bear some inscription, designating the author. Each of the psalms or metrical compositions in the Pentateuch has some distinct notice both of the author, and of the circumstances under which it was produced. See Gen. iv. 23, xlix. 1, 2; Exod. xv. 1; Deut. xxxi. 30, xxxiii. 1. Thus too in Judges, the Song of Deborah; in Samuel, the hymn of Hannah (Judg. v. 1; 1 S. ii. 1); the lamentation of David, 2 S. i. 17; his pæan, &c., ch. xxii. 1, and his last words, ch. xxiii. 1, have special and complete inscriptions.

The Song of Hezekiah again, although it occurs in the middle of a book, where the context sufficiently explains the occasion, has a formal inscription, resembling those which are prefixed to many of the psalms, viz. "the writing of Hezekiah king of Judah, when he had been sick and was recovered of his sickness." Isai. xxxviii. 9. Such, more

2 Sy, lit. by the hands of David, which may mean as appointed by David, or as composed by him.

Talmud, 'Pesachim,' c. x.