CHAPTER IX.

PRESBYTERIANISM-ITS ORIGIN AND PREVALENCE-THE KIRK OF SCOTLAND-AMERICAN PRESBYTERIANS-DIVISION INTC OLD AND NEW SCHOOLS-CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIANSDUTCH REFORMED CHURCH-GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH

In the introductory portion of the preceding chapter, we have given the meaning and derivation of the term Presbyterian. The supporters of this system contend that we nowhere read in the New Testament of bishops and presbyters or of pastors of different rank, in the same church; that all ministers of the gospel, being ambassadors of Christ, are inherently equal; and that deacons are laymen, whose sole duty it is to take charge of the poor.

The first Presbyterian church in modern times, was founded in Geneva, by John Calvin, about 1541; and the system was thence introduced into Scotland, with some modification, by John Knox, about 1560, but was not legally established there till 1592. For about a century from this date there was a continual struggle in Scotland between presbytery and episcopacy for superiority. The latter, which was patronised by the court, predominated in 1606; but was superseded by the former, to which the great body of the people were attached, in 1538. Presbytery kept its ground from this period till the revolution. in 1660, when episcopacy again obtained the ascendancy, which it maintained till 1688; soon after which it was abolished, and the national church of Scotland declared presbyterian-a form which it has since retained. The most numerous bodies of dissenters from the Scottish established church, such as the Associate and Relief Synods, are also Presbyterians; their cause of secession. being that the church had relaxed the strictness of presbyterian principles.

Presbytery has never flourished greatly in England. In that country the first presbyterian church was formed at Wandsworth, Surrey, in 1572, about twenty years before presbytery was established by law in Scotland; but though the system was never palatable to the English nation generally, an attempt was made to make the established church presbyterian in the reign of Charles I. This object was signally promoted by the famous Assembly of Divines at Westminster. In 1649, presbytery was sanctioned by the English parliament, and the established church was nominally presbyterian from this date till the restoration in 1660; yet it was never generally adopted, or regularly organized, except in London and in Lancashire. Upwards of two thousand presbyterian clergy were ejected from their cures in England, in consequence of the Act of Uniformity in 1662. There are still many congregations (about one hundred and fifty) in England, particularly in the northern counties, called presbyterian; some of them in full connexion with the Scottish church, others differing materially from that polity, while not a few of them have adopted nearly the same church government with the Independents. In Ireland, chiefly in the province of Ulster, there are about four hundred and fifty presbyterian congregations. There are upwards of one hundred such congregations in the British North American possessions; and presbytery has also been introduced to a greater or less extent in the other British colonies.

In the United States of America presbytery embraces upwards of twenty-eight hundred congregations, with two thousand ministers. The same system, though somewhat modified from that which obtains in Scotland, is the established church in Holland. It still exists, though to a very limited extent, in Geneva; it prevails also less or more in several of the other Swiss cantons.

THE KIRK OF SCOTLAND.

The constitution of the church of Scotland, which has long been the most perfect and efficient model of presby

tery, is as follows: The kirk session is the lowest court, and is composed of the parochial minister and of lav elders, the number of whom varies in different parishes, but is generally about twelve. The minister is moderator ex officio. This kirk session exercises the religious disci · pline of the parish; but an appeal may be made from its decisions to the presbytery, the court next in dignity.

The presbytery, from which there is a power of appeal to the synod, is composed of the ministers of a number of contiguous parishes, varying in number in different cases, with a lay elder from all respectively. A moderator, who must be a clergyman, is chosen every half year. A presbytery generally meets once a month, but it must meet at least twice a year; and it may hold especial, or extraordinary, meetings. This court takes young men on trial as candidates for licence; ordains presentees to vacant livings; has the power of sitting in judgment on the conduct of any of its members, and can depose them; and has the general superintendence of religion and education within its bounds.

The number of presbyteries is at present eighty-two. The synod, which meets twice yearly, is formed of the members, both lay and clerical, of two or more presbyteries. At every meeting a moderator is chosen, who must be a clergyman; and a sermon is preached before the court proceeds to business. The number of synods is sixteen. The general assembly is the highest ecclesiastical court, its decisions being supreme. It meets annually in the month of May, and sits for ten successive days. Unlike the inferior courts, it consists of representatives chosen. by the various presbyteries, royal burghs, and universities of Scotland. The number of representatives from presbyteries depends on the number of members of which each is composed. No presbytery sends less than two ministers and one lay elder; and none more than six ministers and three elders. The total number of members of the general assembly is three hundred and eighty-six, of whom two hundred and eighteen are ministers. This supreme court has of late consisted of more than this num

ber, as the church has admitted the ministers of quoad sacra parishes as constituent members of ecclesiastical courts; but the civil law has not given its sanction to this measure: indeed the question is at present under judicial consideration.

The assembly chooses a new moderator yearly, who, in recent times, is always a clergyman. A sermon is preached before the opening of the court. The assembly is honoured with the presence of a nobleman as representative of the sovereign, under the title of lord high commissioner; but this high functionary takes no part in the proceedings of the court, except in opening and closing or dissolving its sittings, and has no voice in its deliberations. The assembly before its close appoints a commission, which is equivalent to a committee of the whole house, being composed of all the members of assembly, and one minister additional, named by the moderator. The commission meets quarterly; but may hold extraordinary meetings.

The income of the clergy, which may average about £250 yearly, including manse and glebe, is regulated by the state; and they are nominated to livings by patronage. They have no liturgy, no altar, no instrumental music. The Scottish presbyterians do not kneel, but stand in time of prayer; and in singing the praises of God they sit. The sacrament of the Supper is not administered in private houses to any person under any circumstances whatever. Pluralities have been prohibited; and the residence of clergymen within their respective parishes has always been imperative. Their creed is rigid Calvinism, and may be found embodied in the "Westminster Confession of Faith," of which the Andover creed we have already quoted in our account of the Calvinists, is a faithful transcript.

Dreadful scenes took place in Scotland previous to the establishment of Presbyterianism in its present form at the Revolution, and its confirmation in 1706, by the Act of Union between the two kingdoms. During the Commonwealth, Presbyterianism was the established religion, but,

'n the Restoration, Episcopacy was introduced in its room So averse, however, were the Scotch to the Episcopalians, and so harsh were the measures of the Episcopalian party, that the whole country was thrown into confusion. Leighton, the most pious and moderate prelate amongst them, disgusted with the proceedings of his brethren, resigned his archbishopric of Glasgow, and told the king: "He would not have a hand in such oppressive measures, were he sure to plant the Christian religion in an infidel country by them; much less when they tended only to alter the form of church government." On the other hand, Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, who had been an apostate from the Presbyterians, adopted violent measures, which terminated in his death. For in 1679, nine ruffians stopped his coach near St. Andrew's, assassinated him, and left his body covered with thirty-two wounds! On the monument of this unfortunate prelate, in one of the churches of St. Andrew's, is to be seen an exact representation in sculpture of this tragical event.

There has recently been an ominous dissension in the Scottish church caused by the secession of great numbers of the clergy, who oppose all political interference in their church affairs. The celebrated Dr. Chalmers, who has long been regarded as one of the main pillars of the establishment, is one of the leaders of the seceders of the "Free Church party." In abandoning their salaries, and throwing themselves upon the precarious chances of support from the people, the seceding clergymen have given the best proof of their sincerity and disinterestedness.

AMERICAN PRESBYTERIANS.

The Presbyterian denomination began its organized existence in America about the year 1700, and is the offspring of the church of Scotland. The first church of this order was organized in Philadelphia, 1703; the first presbytery 1704, and the first synod in 1716.

The Presbyterian churches are governed by congregational, presbyterial and synodical assemblies. The church