endowed with copious fluids, become vrituous, those whose fluid is deficient, wicked. But by external influences, human nature can turn from good into bad, and the reverse. Bad people can be improved, and become good by instruction and good example. Therefore the State cannot dispense with instructions and laws.

*9. Chap. V. Chi-yen (Auspicious Portents). Auspicious portents appear, when somebody is destined to something grand by fate, especially, when a new dynasty rises. These manifestations of fate appear either in the person's body, or as lucky signs in nature, or under the form of a halo or a glare. A great variety of instances from ancient times down to the Han dynasty are adduced in proof.

Fate acts spontaneously. There are no other alien forces at work besides fate. Nobody is able to do anything against it. Human activity is of no consequence.

*11. Chap. II. Ku-hsiang

(On Anthroposcopy).

The heavenly fate becomes visible in the body, and can be foreseen by anthroposcopy. The Classics contain examples. The physiognomists draw their conclusions from the osseous structure and from the lines of the skin. The character can also be seen from the features.

*12. Chap. III. Ch'u-ping (Heaven's Original Gift).

Destiny comes down upon man already in his embryonic state, not later on during his life. It becomes mind internally and body externally. This law governs all organisms. Heaven never invests virtuous emperors, because it is pleased with them, for this would be in opposition to its principle of spontaneity and inaction. Utterances of the Classics that Heaven was pleased and looked round, etc. are to be taken in a figurative sense. Heaven has no human body and no human qualities. Lucky omens are not sent by Heaven, but appear by chance.

*13. Chap. IV. Pên-hsing (On Original Nature).

The different theories of Chinese moralists on human nature are discussed. Shih Tse holds that human nature is partly good, partly bad, Mencius that it is originally good, but can be corrupted, Sun Tse that it is originally bad, Kao Tse that it is neither good nor bad, and that it all depends on instruction and development, Lu Chia that it is predisposed for virtue. Tung Chung Shu and Liu Hsiang distinguish between natural disposition and natural feelings. Wang Ch'ung holds that nature is sometimes good and sometimes bad, but essentially alike, being the fluid of Heaven, and adopts the Confucian distinction of average people, people above, and people below the average. The latter alone can be changed by habit.

*14. Chap. V. Wu-shih (The Nature of Things).

Heaven and Earth do not create man and the other things on earth intentionally. They all grow of themselves. Had Heaven produced all creatures on purpose, it would have taught them mutual love, whereas now one destroys the other. Some have explained this struggle for existence by the hypothesis that all creatures are filled with the fluid of the Five Elements, which fight together and overcome one another. Wang Ch'ung controverts this view and the symbolism connected therewith.

*15. Chap. VI. Chi-kuai

(Miracles).

Wang Chung proves by analogies that the supernatural births reported of several old legendary rulers, who are said to have been procreated by dragons or a special fluid of Heaven, are impossible. The Spirit of Heaven would not consort with a woman, for only beings of the same species pair. Saints and Sages are born like. other people from their parents.

BOOK IV.

16. Chap. I. Shu-hsü

The chapter contains a refutation of a series of wrong statements in ancient books. The assertion that Shun and Yu died in the South is shown to be erroneous. Wang Ch'ung explodes the idea that the "Bore" at Hang-chou is caused by the angry spirit of Wu Tse Hsü, who was thrown into the Chien-t ang River, and remarks that the tide follows the phases of the moon. (Bk. IV, p. 5v.)

17. Chap. II. Pien-hsü

Wang Ch'ung points out that many reports in ancient literature concerning extraordinary phenomena, not in harmony with the laws of nature, are fictitious and unreliable, e. g. the story that touched by the virtue of Duke Ching of Sung, the planet Mars shifted its place, that Heaven rewarded the Duke with 21 extra years, or that the great Diviner of Ch'i caused an earthquake.

BOOK V.

18. Chap. I. Yi-hsü

The impossibility of some miracles and supernatural events is demonstrated, which have been handed down in ancient works, and are universally believed by the people and the literati, e. g. the birth of Pao Sse from the saliva of dragons.

19. Chap. II. Kan-hsü

Wang Ch'ung contests that nature can be moved by man and deviate from its course. Various old legends are critically tested:the alleged appearence of ten suns in Yao's time, the report that the sun went back in his course, the wonders which happened during the captivity of Tsou Yen and Tan, Prince of Yen.

The tenor of the last four chapters all treating of unfounded assertions or figments "hsü" is very similar.

BOOK VI.

*20. Chap. I. Fu-hsü

(Wrong Notions about Happiness). Happiness is not given by Heaven as a reward for good actions, as the general belief is. The Méhist theory that the spirits protect and help the virtuous is controverted by facts. Wang Ch'ung shows how several cases, adduced as instances of how Heaven recompensed the virtuous are illusive, and that fate is capricious and unjust.

*21. Chap. II. Huo-hsü (Wrong Notions on Unhappiness).

The common belief that Heaven and Earth and the spirits punish the wicked and visit them with misfortune, is erroneous, as shown by examples of virtuous men, who were unlucky, and of wicked, who flourished. All this is the result of chance and luck, fate and time.

Lun-Hêng.

*22. Chap. III. Lung-hsü (On Dragons).

The dragon is not a spirit, but has a body and lives in pools. It is not fetched by Heaven during a thunderstorm, as people believe. The different views about its shape are given:-It is represented as a snake with a horse's head, as a flying creature, as a reptile that can be mounted, and like earthworms and ants. In ancient times dragons were reared and eaten. The dragon rides on the clouds during the tempest, there being a certain sympathy between the dragon and clouds. It can expand and contract its body, and make itself invisible.

*23. Chap. IV. Lei-hsü (On Thunder and Lightning). Thunder is not the expression of Heaven's anger. As a spirit it could not give a sound, nor could it kill a man with its breath. It does not laugh either. Very often the innocent are struck by lightning, and monsters like the Empress Lü Hou are spared. The pictorial representations of thunder as united drums, or as the thunderer Lei Kung, are misleading. Thunder is fire or hot air, the solar fluid Yang exploding in its conflict with the Yin fluid, lightning being the shooting forth of the air. Five arguments are given, why thunder must be fire.

BOOK VII.

*24. Chap. I. Tao-hsü (Taoist Untruths).

Man dies and can become immortal. The Taoist stories of Huang Ti and Huai Nan Tse's ascension to heaven, of the flying genius met by Lu Ao, and of Hsiang Man Tse's travel to the moon are inventions. The magicians do not possess the powers ascribed to them. The Taoist theory of prolonging life by quietism and dispassionateness, by regulating one's breath, and using medicines is untenable.

*25. Chap. II. Yü-tseng

(Exaggerations).

Wang Ch'ung points out a number of historical exaggerations e. g. that the embonpoint of Chieh and Chou was over a foot, that Chou had a wine-lake, from which 3,000 persons sucked like cattle, that Wen Wang could drink 3,000 bumpers of wine, and Confucius 100 gallons, and some mis-statements concerning the simplicity of Yao and Shun, and the cruelty of Shih Huang Ti, and tries to reduce them to the proper limits.

BOOK VIII.

*26. Chap. I. Ju-tseng (Exaggerations of the Literati). Wang Chung goes on to criticise some old traditions:-on the abolition of punishments under Yao and Shun, on the wonderful shooting of Yang Yu Chi and Hsiung Ch'ü Tse, on the skill of Lu Pan, on Ching Ko's attempt upon Shih Huang Ti's life, on the miracles connected with the Nine Tripods of the Chou dynasty, etc.

27. Chap. II. Yi-tseng.

People are fond of the marvellous and of exaggerations, in witness whereof passages are quoted from the Shuking, the Shiking, the Yiking, the Lun-yü, and the Chun-ch'iu.

BOOK IX.

*28. Chap. I. Wên K'ung L (Criticisms on Confucius).

The Confucianists do not dare to criticise the Sages, although the words of the Sages are not always true and often contradictory. It is also, because they do not understand the difficult passages, and only repeat what the commentators have said. Wang Chung vindicates the right to criticise even Confucius. Such criticisms are neither immoral nor irrational. They help to bring out the meaning, and lead to greater clearness. Wang Chung then takes up a number of passages from the Analects for discussion, in which he discovers contradictions or other flaws, but does not criticise the system of Confucius or his theories in general.

BOOK X.

*29. Chap. I. Fei Han (Strictures on Han Fei Tse).

Han Fei Tse solely relies on rewards and punishments to govern a State. In his system there is no room for the cultivation of virtue. He despises the literati as useless, and thinks the world to be so depraved and mean, that nothing but penal law can keep it in check. Wang Chung shows by some examples taken from Han Fei Tse's work that this theory is wrong. Men of letters are as useful to the State as agriculturists, warriors, and officials, for they cultivate virtue, preserve the true principles, and benefit the State by the good example they set to the other classes.