they had embraced. Others, when they were taught to believe that true Christianity (as it was inculcated by Jesus, and not as it was afterwards corrupted by his disciples) differed in few points from the pagan system, properly explained and restored to its primitive purity, determined to remain in the religion or their ancestors, and in the worship of their gods. A third sort were led, by these comparisons between Christ and the ancient philosophers, to form to themselves a motley system of religion composed of the tenets of both parties, whom they treated with the same veneration and respect. Such was, particularly, the method of Alexander Severus, who paid indiscriminately divine honours to Christ and to Orpheus, to Apollonius, and the other philosophers and heroes whose names were famous in ancient times. XI. The credit and power of the Jews were now too much diminished to render them as capable of injuring the Christians, by their influence over the magistrates, as they had formerly been. This did not, however, discour age their malicious efforts, as the books which From * Hippolytus, Serm. in Susann, et Daniel. tom. i. op. Eusebius. Hist. Eccles. lib. vi. cap. xii. p. 213. PART II. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. yet, in several of the Grecian sects, men of considerable knowledge and reputation, of Concerning the State of Letters and Philosophy whom Longinus has mentioned the greatest during this Century. part. But all these sects were gradually I. THE arts and sciences, which, in the pre-eclipsed by the school of Ammonius, whose ceding century, were in a declining state, seem-origin and doctrines have been considered ed, in this, ready to expire, and had lost all above. This victorious sect, which was formtheir vigour and lustre. The celebrated rheto-ed in Egypt, issued thence with such a rapid rician Longinus, and the eminent historian Dio progress, that, in a short time, it extended Cassius, with a few others, were the last among itself almost throughout the Roman empire. the Greeks, who stood in the breach against and drew into its vortex the greatest part of the prevailing ignorance and barbarism of the those who applied themselves, through inclitimes. Men of learning and genius were still nation, to the study of philosophy. This less numerous in the western provinces of the amazing progress was due to Plotinus, the empire, though there were in several places most eminent disciple of Ammonius, a man of flourishing schools, appropriated to the ad- a most subtile invention, endowed by nature vancement of the sciences and the culture of with a genius capable of the most profound taste and genius. Different reasons contri- researches, and equal to the investigation of buted to this decay of learning. Few of the the most abstruse and difficult subjects. This emperors patronised the sciences, or encour-penetrating and sublime philosopher taught aged, by the prospect of their favour and protection, that emulation which is the soul of literary excellence. Besides, the civil wars that almost always distracted the empire, were extremely unfavourable to the pursuit of science; and the perpetual incursions of the barbarous nations interrupted that leisure and III. The number of disciples, formed in the tranquillity which are so essential to the pro-school of Plotinus, is almost beyond credibility. gress of learning and knowledge, and extin- The most famous was Porphyry,‡ who spread guished, among a people accustomed to the din of arms, all desire of literary acquisitions.* II. If we turn our eyes toward the state of philosophy, the prospect will appear somewhat less desolate and comfortless. There were, as * See the Literary History of France, by the Benedicme monks, vol. i. part ii. publicly, first in Persia, and afterwards at Rome, and in Campania; in all which parts the youth flocked in crowds to receive his instructions. He comprehended the precepts of his philosophy in several books, most of which are yet extant.† In his life of Plotinus, epitomised by Porphyry, ch.xx. † See Porphyrii vita Plotini, of which Fabricius has given an edition in his Bibliotheca Græca, tom. iv.Bayle's Diction. tom. iii.-aud Brucker's Historis Critica Philosophiæ. Porphyry was first the disciple of Longinus, au thor of the justly celebrated Treatise on the Sublime abroad through Sicily, and many other countries, the doctrine of his master, revived with great accuracy, adorned with the graces of a flowing and elegant style, and enriched with new invertions and curious improvements.* From the time of Ammonius, until the sixth century this was almost the only system of philosophy that was publicly taught at Alexindria. A certain philosopher, whose name was Plutarch, having learned it there, brought it into Greece, and renewed, at Athens, the celebrated Academy, from which issued a set of illustrious philosophers, whom we shall have occasion to mention in the progress of this work.t among the Christians; and, in proportion to his rising credit, his method of proposing and explaining the doctrines of Christianity gained authority, till it became almost universal. Besides, some of the disciples of Plotinus having embraced Christianity, on condition that they should be allowed to retain such of the opinions of their master as they thought of superior excellence and merit,* this must also have con tributed, in some measure, to turn the balance in favour of the sciences. These Christian philosophers, preserving still a fervent zeal for the doctrines of their Heathen chief, would naturally embrace every opportunity of spreading them abroad, and instilling them into the minds of the ignorant and the unwary. CHAPTER II. Respecting the Doctors and Ministers of the Church, and its Form of Government, during this Century. IV. We have unfolded, above, the nature and doctrines of this philosophy, as far as was compatible with the brevity of our present design. It is, however, proper to add here, that its votaries were not all of the same sentiments, but thought very differently upon a vaiety of subjects. This difference of opinion was the natural consequence of that funda- I. THE form of ecclesiastical government mental law, which the whole sect was obliged that had been adopted by Christians in general, to keep constantly in view, viz. That truth had now acquired greater degrees of stability was to be pursued with the utmost liberty, and and force, both in particular churches, and in to be collected from all the different systems in the general society of Christians. It appears which it lay dispersed. Hence it happened, incontestable, from the most authentic records that the Athenians rejected certain opinions and the best histories of this century, that, in that were entertained by the philosophers of the larger cities, there was, at the head of each Alexandria: yet none of those who were am-church, a person to whom was given the title bitious to be ranked among these new Plato- of bishop, who ruled this sacred community nists, called in question the main doctrines with a certain sort of authority, in concert, which formed the groundwork of their singu- however, with the body of presbyters, and conlar system; those, for example, which regard-sulting, in matters of moment, the opinions ed the existence of one God, the fountain of and the voices of the whole assembly.f It is all things; the eternity of the world; the de- ||also equally evident, that, in every province, pendence of matter upon the Supreme Being; one bishop was invested with a certain supethe nature of souls; the plurality of gods; the riority over the rest, in point of rank and aumethod of interpreting the popular supersti-thority. This was necessary to the maintetions, &c. nance of that association of churches which V. The famous question concerning the|| had been introduced in the preceding century; excellence and utility of human learning, was and it contributed to facilitate the holding of now debated with great warmth among the general councils, and to give a certain degree Christians; and the contending parties, in this of order and consistency to their proceedings. controversy, seemed hitherto of equal force It must, at the same time, be carefully observin point of number, or nearly so. Many re-ed, that the rights and privileges of these commended the study of philosophy, and an || primitive bishops were not every where accuacquaintance with the Greek and Roman lite-rately fixed, nor determined in such a manner rature; while others maintained, that these as to prevent encroachments and disputes; nor were pernicious to the interests of genuine Christianity, and the progress of true piety. The cause of letters and philosophy triumphed, however, by degrees; and those who wished well to them, continued to gain ground, till at length the superiority was manifestly decided in their favour. This victory was principally due to the influence and authority of Origen, who, having been early instructed in the new kind of Platonism already mentioned, blendid it, though unhappily, with the purer and more sublime tenets of a celestial doctrine, and re-vileges. commended it, in the warmest manner, to the youth who attended his public lessons. The fame of this philosoper increased daily but, having passed from Greece to Rome, where he heard Plotinus, he was so charmed with the genius and penetration of this philosopher, that he attached himself utirely to him. See Plotin vit. p. 3. Eunap. c. ii. p. 17. *Holstenius, vit. Porphyrii, republished by Fabricius. + Marini vita Procii, cap. xi. xii. does it appear, that the chief authority in the province was always conferred upon that bishop who presided over the church established in the metropolis. It may also be noticed, as a matter beyond all dispute, that the bishops of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria, considered as rules of primitive and apostolic churches, had a kind of pre-eminence over all others, and were not only consulted frequently in affairs of ||a_difficult and momentous nature, but were also distinguished by peculiar rights and pri II. With respect, particularly, to the bishop of Rome, he is supposed by Cyprian to have had, at this time, a certain pre-eminence in *Augustinus, Epistola lvi. ad Dioscor. p. 260, tom ii. op. A satisfactory account of this matter may be seen in Blondelli Apologia pro Sententia Hieronymi de Episcopis et Presbyteris, p. 136, as that author has collected all the testimonier of the ancients relative to that subject the church, nor does he stand alone in this vernment of the church, was Cyprian, who opinion. But it ought to be observed, that pleaded for the power of the bishops with more even those, who, with Cyprian, attributed this zeal and vehemence than had ever been hithpre-eminence to the Roman prelate, insisted, at erto employed in that cause, though not with the same time, with the utmost warmth, upon an unshaken constancy and perseverance; for, the equality, in point of dignity and authority, in difficult and perilous times, necessity somethat subsisted among all the members of the times obliged him to yield, and to submit seve episcopal order. In consequence of this opin-ral things to the judgment and authority of the ion of an equality among all Christian bishops, church. they rejected, with contempt, the judgment of IV. This change in the form of ecclesiasti the bishop of Rome, when they thought it ill-cal government, was soon followed by a train founded or unjust, and ollowed their own of vices, which dishonoured the character and sense of things with a perfect independence. authority of those to whom the administration Of this Cyprian himself gave an eminent ex- of the church was committed; for, though seample, in his famous controversy with Stephen veral yet continued to exhibit to the world il bishop of Rome, concerning the baptism of lustrious examples of primitive piety and Chrisheretics, in which he treated the arrogance of tian virtue, yet many were sunk in luxury and that imperious prelate with a noble indigna- voluptuousness, puffed up with vanity, arrotion, and also with a perfect contempt. Who- gance, and ambition, possessed with a spirit of ever, therefore, compares these particulars, will contention and discord, and addicted to many easily perceive, that the only dignity which the other vices that cast an undeserved reproach bishop of Rome could justly claim was a pre- upon the holy religion, of which they were the eminence of order and association, not of unworthy professors and ministers. This is power and authority. Or to explain the matter testified in such an ample manner, by the reyet more clearly, the pre-eminence of the bishop peated complaints of many of the most reof Rome, in the universal church, was such as spectable writers of this age,* that truth will that of Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, was in not permit us to spread the veil, which we the African churches; and every one knows, should otherwise be desirous to cast over such that the precedency of this latter prelate di- enormities among an order so sacred. The minished in nothing the equality that subsisted bishops assumed, in many places, a princely among the African bishops, and invalidated in authority, particularly those who had the greatno instance their rights and liberties, but gave est number of churches under their inspection, only to Cyprian, as the president of their ge- and who presided over the most opulent assem neral assemblies, a power of calling councils, blies. They appropriated to their evangelical of presiding in them, of admonishing his bre-function the splendid ensigns of temporal mathren in a mild and fraternal manner, and ofjesty; a throne, surrounded with ministers, exexecuting, in short, such offices as the order and purposes of these ecclesiastical meetings necessarily required.‡ alted above his equals the servant of the meek and humble Jesus; and sumptuous garments dazzled the eyes and the minds of the multi tude into an ignorant veneration for this usurped authority. An example which ought not by the presbyters, who, neglecting the sacred duties of their station, abandoned themselves to the indolence and delicacy of an effeminate and luxurious life. The deacons, beholding the presbyters thus deserting their functions, boldly invaded their rights and privileges; and the effects of a corrupt ambition were spread through every rank of the sacred order. III. The face of things began now to change in the Christian church. The ancient method | of ecclesiastical government seemed, in general, || to have been followed, was ambitiously imitated still to subsist, while, at the same time, by imperceptible steps, it varied from the primitive rule, and degenerated toward the form of a religious monarchy; for the bishops aspired to higher degrees of power and authority than they had formerly possessed, and not only violated the rights of the people, but also made gradual encroachments upon the privileges of the presbyters; and that they might cover these usurpations with an air of justice, and an appearance of reason, they published new doctrines concerning the nature of the church, and of the episcopal dignity, which, however, were in general so obscure, that they themselves eemed to have understood them as little as those to whom they were delivered. One of the principal authors of this change, in the go V. From what has been now observed, we may come, perhaps, at the true origin of minor or inferior orders, which were, in this century, added every where to those of the bishops, presbyters, and deacons; for, certainly, the titles and offices of subdeacons, acolythi, ostiarii, or door-keepers, readers, exorcists, and copiate, would never have been heard of in the church, if its rulers had been assiduously and zealously employed in promoting the interests of truth and piety, by their labours and their example. But, when the honors and priviliges of the So I have translated Principatus ordinis et consociationis, which could not be otherwise rendered with- bishops and presbyters were augmented. the out a long circumlocution. The pre-eminence here men- deacons also began to extend their ambit.ous tioned, signifies the right of convening councils, of pre-views, and to despise those lower functions and siding in them, of collecting voices, and such other things *Cyprian, Ep. lv. et lxxiii. etiam de Unitate Ecclesiæ, p. 195, edit. Baluzii. as were essential to the order of these assemblies. See Steph. Baluzii adno. ad Cypriani Epistolas, p. 387, 389, 400. Consult particularly the seventy-first and seventy-third epistles of Cyprian, and the fifty-fifth, addressed to Cornelius, bishop of Rome, in which letters the Carthaginian prelate pleads with warmth and vehemence for the equality of all Christian bishops employments which they had hitherto exercised with such humility and zeal. The additional orders that were now created to di Origen. Comm. in Matthæum, par.,i. op. p. 420, 441. Eusebius, Hist. Ecr'es lib. viii. cap. i. called, by the Greeks, Zuvsxт; and by the Latins, Mulieres subintroductæ. This indecent custom alarmed the zeal of the more pious among the bishops, who employed the utmost efforts of their severity and vigilance to abolish it, though it was a long time before they entirely effected this laudable purpose. minish the labours of the present rulers of the || declarations, that nothing passed in this com church, had functions allotted to them, which merce that was contrary to the rules of chas their names partly explain.* The institution|tity and virtue.* These holy concubines were of exorcists was a consequence of the doctrine of the New Platonists, which the Christians adopted, and which taught, that the evil genii, or spirits, were continually hovering over human bodies, toward which they were carried by a natural and vehement desire; and that vicious men were not so much impelled to sin by an innate depravity, or by the seduction of VII. Thus we have given a short, though example, as by the internal suggestions of some not a very pleasing view of the rulers of the evil dæmon. The copiate were employed in church during this century; and we ought now providing for the decent interment of the dead. to mention the principal writers who distinVI. Marriage was permitted to all the va-guished themselves in it by their learned and rious ranks and orders of the clergy. Those, pious productions. The most eminent of these, however, who continued in a state of celibacy, whether we consider the extent of his fame, or obtained by this abstinence a higher reputation the multiplicity of his labours, was Origen, a of sanctity and virtue than others. This was presbyter and catechist of Alexandria, a man owing to an almost general persuasion, that of vast and uncommon abilities, and the greatthey, who took wives, were of all others the est luminary of the Christian world that this most subject to the influence of malignant age exhibited to view. Had the soundness of dæmons. And as it was of infinite impor- his judgment been equal to the immensity of tance to the interests of the church, that no his genius, the fervour of his piety, his indeimpure or malevolent spirit should enter into fatigable patience, his extensive erudition, and the bodies of such as were appointed to govern, his other eminent and superior talents, all enor to instruct others, so the people were de- comiums must have fallen short of his merit. sirous that the clergy should use their utmost Yet such as he was, his virtues and his labours efforts to abstain from the pleasures of the con- deserve the admiration of all ages; and his jugal life. Many of the sacred order, espe- name will be transmitted with honour through cially in Africa, consented to satisfy the desires the annals of time, as long as learning and ge of the people, and endeavoured to do this in nius shall be esteemed among men.† such a manner as not to offer an entire violence their own inclinations. For this purpose, they formed connexions with those women who had made vows of perpetual chastity; and it was an ordinary thing for an ecclesiastic to admit one of these fair saints to the participation of his bed; but still under the most solemn The second in renown, among the writers of this century, was Julius Africanus, a native of Palestine, a man of the most profound erudi tion, but the greatest part of whose learned labours are unhappily lost. Hippolytus, whose history is much involved in darkness, is also esteemed among the most celebrated authors and martyrs of this age; but *The sub-deacons were designed to ease the deacons those writings which at present bear his name, of the meanest part of their work. Their office, consequently, was to prepare the sacred vessels of the altar, are justly looked upon by many as either exand to deliver them to the deacons in time of divine ser-tremely corrupted, or entirely spurious. vice; to attend the doors of the church during the communion service; to go on the bishop's embassies, with his letters or messages to foreign churches. In a word, they were so subordinate to the superior rulers of the church, that by a canon of the council of Laodicea, they were forbidden to sit in the presence of a deacon without his leave. The order of acolythi was peculiar to the Latin church; for there was no such order in the Greek church, during the four first centuries. Their name signifies at tendants; and their principal office was to light the candles of the church, and to attend the ministers with wine for the eucharist. The ostiarii, or door-keepers, were appointed to open and shut the doors, as officers and servants under the deacons and sub-deacons; to give notice of the times of prayer and church assemblies, which, in time of persecution, required a private signal for fear of discovery; and that, probably, was the first reason for instituting this order in the church of Rome, whose example, by degrees, was soon followed by other churches.-The readers were those who were directed to read the scripture in that part of divine service to which the catechumens were admitted.-The exorcists were appointed to drive out evil spirits from the bodies of persons possessed; they had been long known in the church, but were not erected into an ecclesiastical order before the latter end of the third century.-The copiate, or fossari, were an order of the inferior clergy, whose business it was to take care of funerals, and to provide for the decent interment of the dead. In vain have Baronius and other Romish writers assserted, that these in ferior orders were of apostolical institution. The contrary is evidently proved, since these offices are not mentioned by authentic writers as having taken place before the third century, and the origin can be traced no higher han the fourth. Porphyrius, e axons, lib. iv. p. 417. Gregory, bishop of New-Cæsarea, acquired, at this time, the title of Thaumaturgus, i. e. Wonder-worker, on account of the variety of great and signal miracles, which he is said to have wrought during the course of his ministry. Few of his works have come down to our times, and his miracles are called in question by many, as unsupported by sufficient evidence.§ It is to be wished that we had more of the writings of Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, than those which have survived the ruins of time, since the few remaining fragments of his works display the most consummate wisdom and prudence, and the most amiable spirit of moderation and candor, and this abundantly * Credat Judæus Apella. See however Dodwell, Diss. tertia Cyprianica, and Lud. An. Muratorius, Diss. de Synisactís et Agapetis, in his Anecdot. Græc. p. 218; as also Baluzius ad Cypriani Epistol. See a very learned and useful work of the famous Huet, bishop of Avranches, entitled, Origeniana. Sce also, Doucin, Histoire d'Origene et des Mouvemens ar rives dans l'Eglise au sujet de sa Doctrine; and Bayle's Dictionary. The benedictine monks have, with great labour and erudition, endeavoured to dispel this darkness in their Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. i. p. 361. § See Van-Dale's preface to his Latin treatise concern ling Oracles. vindicate from all suspicion of flattery, the ancients who mentioned him under the title of Dionysius the Great.* Methodius appears to have been a man of great piety, and highly respectable on account of his eminent virtue; but those of his works which are yet extant, evince no great degree of penetration and acuteness in handling controversy and weighing opinions. tion to the precepts of their pinosophy, and to make deep and profound researches into the intimate and hidden nature of those truths which the divine Saviour had delivered to his disciples. Origen was at the head of this speculative tribe. This great man, enchanted by the charms of the Platonic philosophy, set it up as the the test of all religion, and imagined that the reasons of each doctrine were to be found in that favorite philosophy, and their nature and extent to be determined by it.* It must be confessed that he handled this matter with modesty and caution; but he still gave an example to his disciples, the abuse of which could not fail to be pernicious, and under the VIII. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, a man of the most eminent abilities and flowing eloquence, stands foremost in the list of Latin writers. His letters, and indeed the greater part of his works breathe such a noble and pathetic spirit of piety, that it is impossible to read them without the warmest feelings of en-authority of which, they would naturally inthusiasm. We must however observe, that he would have been a better writer, had he been less attentive to the ornaments of rhetoric; and a better bishop, had he been able to restrain the vehemence of his temper and to distinguish with greater acuteness, between truth and falsehood. dulge themselves without restraint in every wanton fancy. And so, indeed, the case was; for the disciples of Origen, breaking forth from the limits fixed by their master, interpreted, in the most licentious manner, the divine truths of religion according to the tenor of the Platonic philosophy. From these teachers the philosophical, or scholastic theology, as it is call passed through various forms and modifications according to the genius, turn, and erudition of those who embraced it. The dialogue of Minucius, Felix, which bears the title of Octavius, effaces with such judged, derived its origin; and, proceeding hence, ment, spirit and force, the calumnies and reproaches that were cast upon the Christians by their adversaries, that it deserves an attentive perusal from those who are desirous of knowing the state of the church during this century. The seven books of Arnobius, the African, written against the Gentiles, form a still more copious and ample defence of the Christians, and, though obscure in several places, may yet be read with pleasure and with profit. It is true, that this rhetorician, too little instructed in the Christian religion, when he wrote this work, has mingled great errors with solemn and important truths, and has exhibited Christianity under a certain philosophical form, very different from that in which it is commonly received. We refer our readers, for an account of the authors of inferior note, who lived in this century, to those who have professedly given histories or enumerations of the Christian writers. CHAPTER III. II. The same principles gave rise to another species of theology, which was called mystic. And what must seem at first sight surprising here, is, that this mystic theology, though formed at the same time, and derived from the same source with the scholastic, had a natural tendency to overturn and destroy it. The authors of this mystic science are not known; but the principles from which it sprang are manifest. Its first promoters argued from that known doctrine of the Platonic school, which also was adopted by Origen and his disciples that the divine nature was diffused through all human souls; or in other words that the faculty of reason, from which the health and vigour of the mind proceed, was an emanation from God into the human soul, and comprehended in it the principles and elements of all truth, human and divine. They denied that men could, by labour or study, excite this celestial flame in their breasts; and, therefore, they highly dis Concerning the Doctrine of the Christian Church approved the attempts of those who, by defi in this Century. I. THE principal doctrines of Christianity were now explained to the people in their native purity and simplicity, without any mixture of abstract reasonings or subtile inventions; nor were the feeble minds of the multitude loaded with a great variety of precepts. But the Christian doctors who had applied themselves to the study of letters and philosophy, soon abandoned the frequented paths, and wandered in the devious wilds of fancy. The Egyptians distinguished themselves in this new method of explaining the truth. They looked upon it as a noble and a glorious task to bring the doctrines of celestial wisdom into a certain subjec The history of Dionysius is particularly illustrated by Jaques Basnage, in his Histoire de l'Eglise, tom. i. op. See Origen, in Præf. Libro. de Principiis, tom. i. p. 49, and lib. i. de Principiis, cap. ii. See also the ExPositio Fidei by Gregorius Neocæsariensis. nitions, abstract theorems, and profound speculations, endeavourtd to form distinct notions of truth, and to discover its hidden nature. On the contrary, they maintained, that silence, tranquillity, repose, and solitude, accompanied with such acts of mortification as might tend to extenuate and exhaust the body, were the means by which the internal word was excited to produce its latent virtues, and to instruct men in the knowledge of divine things. For thus they reasoned: " They who behold with a noble contempt all human affairs, they who turn away their eyes from terrestrial vanities, and shut all the avenues of the outward senses against the contagious influences of a material world, must necessarily return to God, when the spirit is thus disengaged from the impediments that prevented that happy union; and This is manifest from what remains of his Stromata; as also from his books de Principiis, which are still preserved in a Latin translation of them by Rufinus. |