Chaldea, sent missionaries into Cathay and China, who were empowered to exercise the authority of bishops over the Christian assem blies, which lay concealed in the remoter provinces of those great empires. It is, at the same time, almost equally certain, that even these assemblies did not survive this century. unknown to the inhabitants of Europe, deemed || it their duty to enlighten them with the knowledge of the truth. The first attempt of this pious nature was made by the Portuguese among those Africans who inhabited the kingdom of Congo, and who, with their monarch, were suddenly converted to the Romish faith, in 1491.* But what must we think of a con- II. The ruin of the Grecian empire was a version effected with such astonishing rapidity, new source of calamities to the Christian and of a people who at once, without hesita- church in a considerable part of Europe and tion, abandoned their inveterate prejudices? Asia. When the Turks, conducted by MoHas not such a conversion, a ridiculous or ra-hammed II., an able prince and a formidable ther an afflictive aspect? After this religious revolution in Africa, Alexander VI. gave a rare specimen of papal presumption, in dividing America between the Portuguese and Spaniards, but showed at the same time his zeal for the propagation of the Gospel, by the ardour with which he recommended, to these two nations, the instruction and conversion of the Americans, both in the isles and on the continent of that immense region.† In consequence of this exhortation of the pontiff, a great number of Franciscans and Dominicans were sent into those countries, to enlighten the darkness of their inhabitants; and the success of the mission is abundantly known.‡ CHAPTER II. Concerning the calamitous Events that happened to the Church during this Century. warrior, had made themselves masters of Constantinople, in 1453, the cause of Christianity received a blow, from which it has not yet recovered. Its adherents in these parts had no resources left, which could enable them to maintain it against the perpetual insults of their fierce and incensed victors; nor could they stem that torrent of barbarism and ignorance which rushed in with the triumphant arms of the Moslem prince, and overspread Greece with a fatal rapidity. The Turks took one part of Constantinople by force of arms; the other surrendered upon terms. Hence, in the former division, the public profession of the Gospel was prohibited, and every vestige of Christianity effaced; while the inhabitants of the latter were permitted to retain their churches and monasteries during the whole course of this century, and to worship God according to the precepts of the Gospel, and the liberty was, indeed, considerably diminished in the reign of Selim I., and the Christian worship was loaded with severe and despotic restrictions. The outward form of the Christian church was not, indeed, either changed or destroyed by the Turks; but its lustre was eclipsed, its strength was undermined, and it was gradually attenuated to a mere shadow under their tyrannic empire. Pope Pius II wrote a warm and urgent letter to Mohammed II. to persuade that prince to profess the Gospel; but this letter equally destitute of piety and prudence.§ I. IN the vast regions of the eastern world Christianity daily lost ground; and the Mos-dictates of their consciences. This valuable lems, whether Turks or Tartars, united their barbarous efforts to extinguish its bright and salutary lustre. Asiatic Tartary, Mogolestan, Tangut, and the adjacent provinces, where the religion of Jesus had long flourished, were now become the dismal seats of superstition, which reigned among the people under the vilest forms. Nor in these inmense tracts of land were there at this time any traces of Christianity visible, except in China, where the Nestorians still preserved some scattered remains of their former glory, and appeared like a faint and dying taper in the midst of a dark and gloomy firmament. That some Nestorian churches were still subsisting in these regions of darkness, is undoubtedly certain; thor in a letter from the learned Mr. Theophilus Sige. fred Bayer, one of the greatest adepts in eastern his. for in this century the Nestorian pontiff, in||tory and antiquities, that this or any other age has produced. *Labat, Relation de l'Europe Occidentale, tom. ii. p. 366.-Jos. Franc. Lafitau, Histoire des Decouver. tes des Portugais dans le nouveau Monde, tom. i. p. 72. † See the Bull itself. in the Bullarium Romanum, tom. i. p. 466. See Thom. Maria Mamachius, Orig. et Antiquitat. Christian. tom. ii. p. 326, where we have an account of the gradual introduction of the Christian religion into America.-See also Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. xv. p. 10. *This circumstance was communicated to the au. In this account Dr. Mosheim has followed the Turkish writers. And indeed their account is much more probable than that of the Latin and Greek historians, who suppose that the whole city was taken by force, and not by capitulation. The Turkish relation diminishes the glory of the con quest, and therefore probably would not have been adopted, had it not been true. Demet. Cantemir, Histoire de l'Empire Cttoman, t. i. 11, 46, 54. § Dictionnaire Hist. et Critique de Bayle. THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. Co scerning the state of Letters and Philosophy during this Century. I. THE Grecian and Oriental Muses languished under the despotic yoke of the Mohammedans; their voices were mute, and their harps unstrung. The republic of letters had a quite different aspect in the Latin world, where the liberal arts and sciences were cultivated with zeal and spirit, under the most auspicious encouragement, and recovered their ancient lustre and glory. Several of the popes became their zealous patrons and protectors, among whom Nicolas V. deserves an eminent and distinguished rank; the munificence and authority of kings and princes were also nobly exerted in this excellent cause, and animated men of learning and genius to display their talents. The illustrious family of the Medici in Italy, Alphonso VI. king of Naples, and the other Neapolitan monarchs of the house of Arragon,† acquired immortal renown by their love of letters, their liberality to the learned, and their ardent zeal for the advancement of science. Under their auspices, or in consequence of their example, many academies were founded in Germany, France, and Italy, libraries were collected at a prodigious expense, and honours and rewards were lavished on the studious youth, to animate their industry by the views of interest and the desire of glory. To all these happy circumstances, in favour of the sciences, was now added an admirable discovery, which contributed, as much as any thing else, to their propagation, I mean the art of Printing, (first with wooden, and afterwards with metal types,) which was invented about the year 1440, at Mentz, by John Guttemberg. By the aid of this incomparable art, the productions of the most eminent Greek and Latin writers, which had lain concealed, before this interesting period, in the libraries of the monks, were now spread abroad with facility, and perused by many, who could never have had access to them under their primitive form.1 The perusal of these noble composi * We have a full account of the obligations of the republic of letters to the family of Medici, in a valuable work of Joseph Bianchini de Prato, dei gran Duchi di Toscana delle reale Casa de Medici, Protettori delle Lettere e delle Belle Arti, Ragiona. menti Historici, published at Venice, in 1741. † See Giannone, Historia di Napoli, tom. iii.-Anton. Panormitani Dicta et Facta memorabilia phonsi I. denuo edita a Jo. Ger. Meuschenio, in Vit. Erud. Viror. tom. ii. tions purified the taste, excited the enɩ ation noble ambition of excelling in the same way. of men of genius, and animated them with a II. The ruin of the Grecian empire contributed greatly to the propagation and advancement of learning in the west. For, after the reduction of Constantinople, the most eminent of the Greek literati passed into Italy, and were thence dispersed into the other countries of Europe, where, to gain subsistence, these venerable exiles instructed the youth in Grecian erudition, and propagated throughout the western world the love of learning, and a true and elegant taste for the sciences. Hence it was, that every distinguished city and university possessed one or more of these learned Greeks, who formed the studious youth to literary pursuits. But they received no where such encouraging marks of protection and esteem as in Italy, where they were honoured in a singular manner in various cities, and were more especially distinguished by the family of Medici, whose liberality to the learned seemed to have no bounds. It was consequently in Italy that these ingenious fugitives were most numerous; and hence that country became, in some measure, the centre of the arts and sciences, and the general rendezvous of all who were ambitious of literary glory.1 III. The learned men who adorned at this time the various provinces of Italy, were principally employed in publishing accurate and elegant editions of the Greek and Latin clas sics, in illustrating these authors with useful a mould, was the contrivance of John Schoeffer, and Marchand, Histoire de l'Imprimerie. † Jo. Henr. Maii Vita Reuchlini, p. 11, 19, 28, 152, 165.-Casp. Barthius ad Statium, tom. ii. p. 1008.Boulay, tom. v. p. 692. of the history of learning, the reader may consult For a farther account of this interesting period the learned work of Humphry Hody, de Græcis illustribus Literarum Græcarum in Italia Instauratoribus, to which may be added, Battier's Oration on the same subject, published in the Museum Helveti cum, tom. iv. So this note stands in the first edition of this History, in 4to. Since that time, the learned and ingenious Mr. Gerard Meerman, pensionary of Al-Rotterdam, has published his laborious and interesting account of the origin and invention of the art of printing, under the following title, "Origines Typographicæ,"-a work which sets this matter in its true light, by making certain distinctions unknown to the writers who treated this subject before him. According to the hypothesis of this writer, (an hy pothesis supported by irresistible proofs,) Laurence Coster, of Haerlem, invented the moveable wooden types;-Genfleisch and Guttemberg carved metallic types at Mentz, which, though superior to the former, were still imperfect, because often unequal; Schoeffer perfected the invention at Strasbourg, by casting the types in an iron mould, or matrix, engraven with a puncheon. Thus the question is decided. Coste was evidently the inventor of printing; the others improved the art, or rendered it more perfect Dr. Mosheim decides here, that Guttemberg of Men'z was the inventor of the art of printing; Sut this notion is opposed with zeal by several men of learning. Of the many treatises that have been published on this subject, not one is composed with greater erudition and judgment than that of professor Schoepflin, of Strasbourg, in which the learned author undertakes to prove that the art of printing. by the means of letters engraven on plates of wood, was invented at Haerlem, by Coster; that the method of printing, by moveable types, was the discovery of John Guttemberg, a discovery made during his residence at Strasbourg; and that the still more per. fect manner of printing with types of metal cast in commentaries, in studying them as their models, both in poetry and prose, and in throwing light upon the precious remains of antiquity, that were discovered from day to day. In all these branches of literature, many arrived at such degrees of excellence, as it is almost impossible to surpass, and extremely difficult to equal. Nor were the other languages and sciences neglected. In the university of Paris there was now a public professor, not only of the Greek, but also of the Hebrew tongue;* and in Spain and Italy the study of that language, and of Oriental learning and antiquities in general, was pursued with the greatest success.† John Reuchlin, otherwise called Capnion, and Trithemius, who had made an extraordinary progress, both in the study of the languages and of the sciences, were the restorers of solid learning among the Germans. Latin poetry was revived by Antony of Palermo, who excited a spirit of emulation among the favourites of the Muses, and had many followers in that sublime art;§ while Cyriac of Ancona, by his own example, introduced a taste for coins, medals, inscriptions, gems, and other precious monuments of antiquity, of which he himself made a large collection in Italy.|| larly among those of a certain rank and figure. The most eminent patron of this divine philosophy, as it was termed by its votaries, was Cosmo de' Medici, who had no sooner heard the lectures of Pletho, than he formed the design of founding a Platonic academy at Florence. For this purpose, he ordered Marsilius Ficinus, the son of his first physician, to be carefully instructed in the doctrines of the Athenian sage, and, in general, in the language and philology of the Greeks, that he might translate into Latin the productions of the most renowned Platonists. Ficinus answered well the expectations, and executed the intentions of his illustrious patron, by translating successively into the Latin language, the cele brated works of Hermes Trismegistus, Ploti nus, and Plato. The same excellent prince encouraged by his munificence, and animated by his protection, many learned men, such as Ambrose of Camaldoli, Leonardo Bruno, Poggio, and others, to undertake works of a like nature, that the Latin literature might be enriched with translations of the best Greek writers. The consequence of all this was, that two philosophical sects arose in Italy, who debated for a long time (with the warmes. animosity in a multitude of learned and contentious productions) this important question, which was the greatest philosopher, Aristotle or Plato.* IV. It is not necessary to give here a pecuiar and minute account of the other branches of literature that flourished in this century; nevertheless, the state of philosophy deserves a moment's attention. Before the arrival of V. Between these opposite factions, some the Greeks in Italy, Aristotle reigned there eminent men, among both Greeks and Latins, without a rival, and captivated, as it were by thought proper to steer a middle course. To a sort of enchantment, all without exception, this class belonged Johannes Picus de Miranwhose genius led them to philosophical inqui- dola, Bessarion, Hermolaus Barbarus, and ries. The veneration that was shown him, de- || others of less renown, who, indeed, considered generated into a foolish and extravagant en- || Plato as the supreme oracle of philosophy, but thusiasm; the encomiums with which he was would by no means suffer Aristotle to be treated loaded, surpassed the bounds of decency; and|| with indifference or contempt, and who pro many carried matters so far as to compare him with the respectable precursor of the Messiah. This violent passion for the Stagirite was however abated, or rather was rendered less general, by the influence which the Grecian sages, and particularly Gemistius Pletho, acquired among the Latins, many of whom they persuaded to abandon the contentious and subtle doctrine of the Peripatetics, and to substitute in its place the mild and divine wisdom of Plato. It was in the year 1439, about the time of the famous council of Florence, that this revolution happened in the empire of philosophy. Several illustrious personages among the Latins, charmed with the sublime sentiments and doctrines of Plato, propagated them among the studious youth, and particu* R. Simon, Critique de la Bibl. Eccles. par M. Du-Pin, ton. i. p. 502. Boulay, Histor. Paris. tom. v. p. 852. Pauli Colomesii Italia Orientalis, et Hispania Drientalis. † R. Simon, Lettres Choisies, tom. i. p. 262; tom. iv. p. 131, 140. Dictionnaire Hist. et Critique de Bayle. See the Itinerarium of Cyriac, published at Florence in 1742, by Mehus, from the original manuscript, together with a preface, annotations, and several letters of that learned man, who may be considered as the first antiquary that appeared in Europe. See also the Epistles of Leonardo Aretino, tom. ii. lib. ix. p. 149. posed to reconcile the jarring doctrines of these two famous Grecian sages, and to combine them into one system. These moderate phi||losophers, both in their manner of teaching, and in the opinions they adopted, followed the modern Platonic school, of which Ammonius was the original founder. This sect was, for a long time, regarded with the utmost veneration, particularly among the Mystics; while the scholastic doctors, and all such as were infected with the itch of disputing, favoured the Peripatetics. But, after all, these reconciling Platonists were chargeable with many errors and follies; they fell into the most childish su *Boivin, dans l'Histoire de l'Academie des In scriptions et des Belles Lettres, tom. iv. p. 381.Launoy, de varia Fortuna Aristotelis, p. 225. Leo Allatius, de Georgiis, p. 391.-La Croze, En tretiens sur divers Sujets, p. 384.-Joseph Bianchini, dei Gran Duchi di Toscana.-Bruckeri Historia Critica Philosophiæ, tom. iv. It was not only the respective merit of these two philosophers, considered in that point of light. that was debated in this controversy; the principal question was, which system was most conformable to the doctrines of Christianity? And here the Pla tonic certainly deserved the preference, as was abun dantly proved by Pletho and others. It is well known that many of the opinions of Aristotle lead directly to atheism. See Bessarion's Letter in the Histoire de l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. v. p. 456.-Thomasius, See Christ. August. Heumanni Acta Philosopho-de Syncretismo Peripatetico, ir jus Orationibus, rum, tom. iii. p. 345. 340. VOL. I.-52 perstitions, and followed, without either re- || But, on the death of these powerful and reHlection or restraint, the extravagant dictates of their wanton imaginations. VI. Their system of philosophy was, however, much less pernicious than that of the Aristotelians, their adversaries, who still maintained their superiority in Italy, and instructed the youth in all the public schools of learning. For these subtle doctors, and more especially the followers of Averroes, (who maintained that all the human race were animated by one common soul,) imperceptibly sapped the foundations both of natural and revealed religion, and entertained sentiments very little, if at all, different from that impious pantheistical system, which confounds the Deity with the universe, and merely acknowledges one self-existent being, composed of infinite matter and infinite intelligence. Among this class of sophists, the most eminent was Peter Pomponace, a native of Mantua, a man of a crafty turn, and an arrogant, enterprising spirit, who, notwithstanding the pernicious tendency of his writings (many of which are yet extant) to undermine the principles, and corrupt the doctrines of religion,* was almost universally followed by the professors of philosophy in the Italian academies. These intricate doctors did not, however, escape the notice of the inquisitors, who, alarmed both by the rapid progress and dangerous tendency of their metaphysical notions, took cognizance of them, and called the Aristotelians to give an account of their principles. The latter, tempering their courage with craft, had recourse to a mean and perfidious stratagem to extricate themselves from this embarrassing trial. They pretended to establish a wide distinction between philosophical and theological truth; and maintaining that their sentiments were philosophically true, and conformable to right reason, they allowed them to be deemed theologically false, and contrary to the declarations of the Gospel. This miserable and impudent subterfuge was condemned and prohibited in the following century, by Leo X. in a council which he held at the Lateran. VII. The Realists and Nominalists continued their disputes in France and Germany with more vigour and animosity than ever; and, finding that reason and argument were feeble weapons, they had recourse to mutual invectives and accusations, penal laws, and even to the force of arms; a strange method, surely, of deciding a metaphysical question! The contest was not only warm, but was very general in its extent; for it infected, almost without exception, the French and German colleges. In most places, however, the Realists maintained a manifest superiority over the Nominalists, to whom they also gave the appellation of Terminists. While the famous Gerson and the most eminent of his disciples were living, the Nominalists were in high esteem and credit in the university of Paris. * See the very learned Brucker's Hist. Crit. Philosophiæ, t. iv. p. 158. † See Brucker's Historia Critica Philosophiæ, tom. i. p. 904.-Jo. Salaberti Philosophia Nominalium Vindicata, cap. i.-Baluzii Miscellan. t. iv. p. 531.Argentre, Coll. Docum. de nov. Error. t. i. p. 220. spectable patrons the scene was changed to their disadvantage. In 1473, Louis XI., by the instigation of his confessor the bishop of Avranches, issued a severe edict against the doctrines of the Nominalists, and ordered all their writings to be seized, and secured in a sort of imprisonment, that they might not be perused by the people.* But the same monarch mitigated this edict in the following year, and permitted some of the books of that sect to be delivered from their confinement.† In 1481, he went much farther; for he not only granted a full liberty to the Nominalists and their writings, but also restored that philosophical sect to its former authority and lustre in the university.‡ CHAPTER II. Concerning the Doctors and Ministers of the Church, and its Forms of Government, during this Century. I. THE most eminent writers of this century unanimously lament the miserable condition to which the Christian church was reduced by the corruption of its ministers, and which seemed to portend nothing less than its total ruin, if Providence should not interpose, by extraordinary means, for its deliverance and preservation. The vices that reigned among the Roman pontiffs, and, indeed, among all the ecclesiastical orders, were so flagrant, that the complaints of these good men did not appear at all exaggerated, or their apprehensions illfounded; nor had any of the corrupt advocates of the clergy the courage to call them to an account for the sharpness of their censures and of their complaints. The rulers of the church, who lived in luxurious indolence, and in the infamous practice of all kinds of vice, were even obliged to hear with a placid countenance, and even to commend, these bold censors, who declaimed against the degeneracy of the church, declared that there was scarcely any thing sound either in its visible head or in its members, and demanded the aid of the secular arm, and the destroying sword, to lop off the parts that were infected with this grievous and deplorable contagion. Affairs, in short, were brought to such a pass, that those were deemed the best Christians, and the most useful members of society, who, braving the terrors of persecution, and triumphing over the fear of man, inveighed with the greatest freedom and fervour against the court of Rome, its lordly pontiff, and the whole tribe of his followers and votaries. II. At the commencement of this century, the Latin church was divided into two great factions, and was governed by two contending pontiffs, Boniface IX. who remained at Rome, and Benedict XIII. who resided at Avignon. *Naude's Additions a l'Histoire de Louis XI. p 203.-Du Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. v. p. 678, 705.-Launoy's Histor. Gymnas. Navar. t. iv. op part i. p. 201 378. Upon the death of the former, the cardinals of || into three great factions, and its government his party raised to the pontificate, in 1404, violently carried on by three contending chiefs Cosmo de Meliorati, who assumed the name who loaded each other with reciprocal maleof Innocent VII.,* and held that high dignity || dictions, calumnies, and excommunications. during the short space of two years only. Alexander V., who had been elected pontiff at After his decease, Angelo Corraric, a Vene- the council of Pisa, died at Bologna in 1410; tian cardinal, was chosen in his room, and and the sixteen cardinals, who attended him in ruled the Roman faction under the title of that city, immediately filled up the vacancy, Gregory XII. A plan of reconciliation was by choosing, as his successor, Balthasar Cossa, however formed, and the contending pontiffs a Neapolitan, destitute of all principles both bound themselves, each by an oath, to make a of religion and probity, who assumed the title voluntary renunciation of the papal chair, if of John XXIII. The duration of this schism that step should be deemed necessary to pro- in the papacy was a source of many calami mote the peace and welfare of the church; but ties, and became daily more detrimental both both of them scandalously violated this solemn to the civil and religious interests of those naobligation. Benedict, besieged in Avignon tions among whom the flame raged. Hence by the king of France, in 1408, saved himself it was that the emperor Sigismund, the king by flight, retiring first into Catalonia, his na- of France, and several other princes, employtive country, and afterwards to Perpignan. ed all their zeal and activity, and spared neiHence eight or nine of the cardinals, who ad- ther labour nor expense, in restoring the tranhered to his cause, seeing themselves deserted quillity of the church, and uniting it again un by their pope, went over to the other side, and, der one spiritual head. On the other hand, the joining publicly with the cardinals who_sup- pontiffs could not be persuaded by any means ported Gregory, they agreed to assemble a to prefer the peace of the church to the graticouncil at Pisa on the 25th of March, 1409, in fication of their ambition; so that no other order to heal the divisions and factions that method of accommodating this weighty mathad so long rent the papal empire. This coun- ter remained, than the assembling of a general cil, however, which was designed to close the council, in which the controversy might be exwounds of the church, had an effect quite con-amined, and terminated by the judgment and trary to that which was generally expected, decision of the universal church. This counand only served to open a new breach, and to cil was accordingly convoked at Constance, in excite new divisions. Its proceedings, indeed, 1414, by John XXIII. who was engaged in were vigorous, and its measures were accom- this measure by the entreaties of Sigismund, panied with a just severity. A heavy sentence and also from an expectation, that the decrees of condemnation was pronounced, on the 5th of this grand assembly would be favourable to day of June, against the contending pontiffs, his interests. He appeared with a great numwho were declared guilty of heresy, perjury, ber of cardinals and bishops, at this famous and contumacy, unworthy of the smallest to-council, which was also honoured with the kens of honour or respect, and separated ipso facto from the communion of the church. This step was followed by the election of one pontiff in their place. The election took place on the 25th of June, and fell upon Peter of Candia, known in the papal list by the name of Alex- iv. The great object of this assembly was ander V.,† but all the decrees and proceedings || the healing of the schism that had so long rent of this famous council were treated with con- the papacy: and this purpose was happily actempt by the condemned pontiffs, who con- complished. It was solemnly declared, in the tinued to enjoy the privileges and to perform fourth and fifth sessions of this council, by two the functions of the papacy, as if no attempts decrees, that the Roman pontiff was inferior had been made to remove them from that dig- and subject to a general assembly of the uninity. Benedict held a council at Perpignan; versal church; and the same decrees vindicat and Gregory assembled one near Aquileia.ed and maintained, in the most effectual manThe latter, however, apprehending the resent-ner, the authority of councils. This vigorment of the Venetians, made his escape in a clandestine manner from the territory of Aquileia, arrived at Caieta, where he threw himself upon the protection of Ladislaus, king of Naples, and, in 1412, fled thence to Rimini. III. Thus was the Christian church divided * Beside the ordinary writers, who have given us an account of the transactions that happened under the pontificate of Innocent VII., see Leon. Aretin. Epistol. lib. i. ep. iv. v. et Colluc. Salutat. Epistol. lib. ii. We have also an account of the pontificate of Gregory, in the Epistles of the same Aretin, and in Jo. Lami, Delic. Eruditorum, tom. i. † See L'Enfant Histoire, du Concile de Pise.-F. Pagi, Breviar. Pontif. Romanorum, tom. iv.-and Bossuet, Defensio Decreti Gallicani de Potestate Ecclesiastica, tom. ii. He had offended the Venetians by deposing heir patriarch, Antony Panciarini, and putting Anony du Pont, the bishop of Concordia, in his place presence of the emperor, of many German princes, and of the ambassadors of all the European states, whose monarchs or regents could not be personally present at the decision of this important controversy.* in six volumes in folio, at Frankfort, in 1700, by Herman von der Hardt. This collection, however, is imperfect, notwithstanding the pains that it cost the laborious editor. Many of the acts are omitted, by no means deserve a place. The history of the and a great number of pieces are introduced which same council by L'Enfant, is composed with great accuracy and elegance; but the supplement that was given to it by Bourgeois de Chastenet, a French lawyer, is a performance of little merit; it is enti tled, Nouvelle Histoire du Concile de Constance, ou l'on fait voir combien la France a contribue a l'extinction du Schisme.' *The acts of this famous council were published For an account of these two famous decrees, which set such wise limits to the supremacy of the pontiffs, see Natalis Alexand. Hist. Ecc!. sec. XV. Diss. iv.-Bossuet, Defens. Sententiæ Cleri Gallican. de Potest. Ecclesiast. tom. ii.-L'Enfant, Dissert. Historique et Apologetique pour Jean Gerson et le Concile de Constance, which is subjoined to his his tory of that council |