other absurd notions beside those which we have now mentioned, and that, after his death, his disciples formed a part of the sect that was afterwards known in France under the name of the Albigenses, and which is said to have adopted the Manichæan errors. IV. There were yet subsisting some remains of the sect of the Arians in several parts of Italy, and particularly in the territory of Padua; but Ratherius, bishop of Verona, had a still more enormous heresy to combat in the system of the Anthropomorphites, which was revived in 939. In the district of Vicenza, a considerable number, not only of the illiterate multitude, but also of the sacerdotal order, adopted that most absurd and extravagant notion, that the Deity was clothed with a human form, and seated, like an earthly monarch, upon a throne of gold, and that his angelic ministers were men arrayed in white garments, and furnished with wings, to render them more expeditious in executing their sovereign's orders. This monstrous error will appear less astonishing, when we consider that the stupid and illiterate multitude had constantly before their eyes, in all the churches, the Supreme Being and his angels represented in pictures and images with the human figure. The superstition of another set of blinded wretches, mentioned also by Ratherius, was yet more unaccountable and absurd than that of the Anthropomorphites; for they imagined that, every Monday, mass was performed in heaven by St. Michael in the presence of God; and hence, on that day, they resorted in crowds to all the churches which were dedicated to that highly honoured saint.* It is more than probable that the avarice of the priests, who officiated in the church of St. Michael, was the real source of this extravagant fancy; and that in this, as in many other cases, the rapacity of the clergy took advantage of the credulity of the people, and made them believe whatever they thought would contribute to augment the opulence of the church. * Ratherii Epist. Synodica in Dacherii Spicilegio Script. Veter. tom. ii. p. 234.-Sigeberti Gemblacens Chron. ad annum 939. THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. PART I. EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. CHAPTER I. from a multitude of unexceptionable testimonies, that Metropolitan prelates, with a greater Concerning the Prosperous Events which hap-number of inferior bishops under their jurisdic pened to the Church during this Century. errors. All these Christians were undoubtedly Nestorians, and lived under the jurisdiction of tion, were established at this time in the proI. In the preceding century some faint novinces of Casgar, Nuacheta, Turkestan, Gentions of the Christian religion, some scattered da, and Tangut;* from which we may conrays of that divine light which it administers clude, that, in this and the following century,. to mortals, had been received among the Hun- a prodigious number of Christians lived in garians, Dancs, Poles, and Russians; but the those very countries which are at present overrude and savage spirit of those nations, toge-run with idolatry, or with the Mohammedan ther with their deplorable ignorance and their violent attachment to the superstitions of their ancestors, rendered their total conversion to Christianity a work of great difficulty, which *Marcus Paul. Venetus de Regionibus Orientalicould not be very rapidly accomplished. The bas, lib. i. cap. 38, 40, 45, 47, 48, 49, 62, 63, 64, lib. ii. zeal, however, with which this important work cap. 39.-Euseb. Renaudot, Anciennes Relations des was carried on, did great honour to the piety Orient. Vatican. tom. iii. part ii. p. 502, &c. The Indes et de la Chine, p. 420.-Assemani Biblioth. of the princes and governors of these unpo- successful propagation of the Gospel, by the ministry lished countries, who united their influence of the Nestorians, in Tartary, China, and the neigh with the labours of the learned men whom bouring provinces, is a most important event, and they had invited into their dominions, to open every way worthy to employ the researches and the the eyes of their subjects upon the truth.* Inn of some able writer, well acquainted with ori ental history. It must, indeed, be acknowledged, Tartary, and the adjacent countries, the zeal that, if this subject be important, it is also difficult and diligence of the Nestorians gained over on many accounts. It was attempted, however, notwithstanding its difficulty, by the most learned Theconsiderable numbers, almost daily, to the pro- oph. Sigefred Bayer, who had collected a great quanfession of Christianity. It appears also evident tity of materials relative to this interesting branch of the history of Christianity, both from the works that have been published upon this subject, and from manuscripts that lie yet concealed in the cabinets of the curious. But, unhappily for the republic of let ters, the death of that excellent man interrupted his labours, and prevented him from executing a design, which was worthy of his superior abilities, an! his well known zeal for the interests of religion. *For an account of the Poles, Russians, and Hungarians, see Romualdi Vita in Actis Sanctor. tom. ii. Februar. Tartary is taken here in its most comprehensive sense for between the inhabitants of Tartary, properly so called, and the Calmucs, Mogols, and the inhabitants of Tar gut, there is a manifest difference. the patriarch of that sect, who resided in || colony, and was afterwards created duke of Chaldæa. Apulia, encouraged by the exhortations of pope II. Among the European nations that lay yet grovelling in their native darkness and superstition, were the Sclavonians, the Obotriti,* the Venedi,† and the Prussians, whose conversion had been attempted, but with little or no success, by certain missionaries, from whose piety and zeal better fruits might have been expected. Toward the conclusion of the preceding century, Adalbert, bishop of Prague, had endeavoured to instil, into the minds of the fierce and savage Prussians, the salutary doctrines of the Gospel; but he perished in the fruitless attempt, and received, in 996, from the murdering lance of Siggo, a pagan priest, the crown of martyrdom. Boleslaus, king of Poland, revenged the death of this pious apostle by entering into a bloody war with the Prussians; and he obtained, by the force of penal laws and of a victorious army, what Adal-preme authority in matters of religion, which bert could not effect by exhortation and argunent. He dragooned this savage people into the Christian church; yet, beside this violent incthod of conversion, others of a more gentle kind were certainly practised by the attendants of Boleslaus, who seconded the military arguments of their prince by the more persuasive influence of admonition and instruction. A certain ecclesiastic of illustrious birth, whose name was Boniface, and who was one of the disciples of St. Romuald, undertook the conversion of the Prussians, and was succeeded in this pious enterprize by Bruno,|| who set out from Germany with a company of eighteen persons, who had entered with zeal into the same laudable design. These were, however, all barbarously massacred by the fierce and cruel Prussians; and neither the vigorous efforts of Boleslaus, nor of the succeeding kings || of Poland, could engage this rude and inflexible nation to abandon totally the idolatry of their ancestors.¶ III. Sicily had been groaning under the dominion of the Saracens from the ninth century; nor had the repeated attempts of the Greeks and Latins to dispossess them of that rich and fertile country, been hitherto crowned with the desired success. But in this century the face of affairs changed entirely in that island; for, in 1059, Robert Guiscard, who had formed a settlement in Italy, at the head of a Norman IV. The pontiffs, from the time of Sylvester II., had been forming plans for extending the limits of the church in Asia, and especially for driving the Moslems out of Palestine; but the troubles in which Europe was so long involved, prevented the execution of these arduous designs. Gregory VII., the most enterprizing and audacious priest that ever sat in the apostolic chair, animated and inflamed by the re peated complaints which the Asiatic Chris-. tians made of the cruelty of the Saracens, resolved to undertake in person a holy war for the deliverance of the church; and above fifty thousand men were speedily mustered to follow him in this bold expedition. But his quarrel with the emperor Henry IV., of which we shall have occasion to speak hereafter, and other unforeseen occurrences, obliged him to relinquish a personal invasion of the holy land. The project, however, was renewed toward the conclusion of this century, by the enthusiastic zeal of an inhabitant of Amiens. who was known by the name of Peter the Hermit, and who suggested to Urban II. the means of accomplishing what had been unfortunately sus ac-pended. This famous hermit, in a journey, which he had made through Palestine in 1093, had observed, with inexpressible anguish, the vexations and persecutions which the Chris *The Obotriti were a great and powerful branch of the Vandals, whose kings resided in the country of Mecklenburg, extending their dominion along the coasts of the Baltic from the river Pene in Pomerania to the duchy of Holstein. The Venedi dwelt upon the banks of the Weissel, or Vistula, in, what is at present called, the Palatinate of Marienburg. 1 See the Acta Sanctor. ad d. xxii. Aprilis, p. 174. Solignac's Hist. de Pologne, tom. i. p. 133. Fleury differs from Dr. Mosheim in his count of Bruno, in two points. First, he maintains, that Boniface and Bruno were one and the same person, and here he is manifestly in the right; but he maintains farther, that he suffered martyrdom in Russia, which is an evident mistake. It is proper farther to admonish the reader to distinguish carefully the Bruno here mentioned, from a monk of the i. same name, who founded the order of the Carth isi ans. Ant. Pagi Critica in Baronium, tom. iv. ar num 1008, p. 97.-Christ. Hartknoch's Ecclesi s'ad History of Prussia, book i. chap i. * See Burigni's Histoire Generale de la Sicile, tom. p. 386. See Baronii Liber de Monarchia Siciliæ, tem. xi. Annal.; as also the Traite de la Monarchie Sicili enne, by M. Du-Pin. Gregorii VII. Epist. lib. ii. 3, in Harduini Cos cil. tom. vi. tians, who visited the holy places, suffered || sider that this army was a motley assemblage from the barbarous and tyrannic Saracens. In- of monks, prostitutes, artists, labourers, lazy flamed therefore with a holy indignation and tradesmen, merchants, boys, girls, slaves, malea furious zeal, which he looked upon as the factors, and profligate debauchees, and that it effects of a divine impulse, he implored the was principally composed of the lowest dregs of assistance of Simeon, patriarch of Constanti- the multitude, who were animated solely by nople, and also of the pope, but without ef- the prospect of spoil and plunder, and hoped to fect. Far from being discouraged by this, he make their fortunes by this holy campaign. renewed his efforts with the utmost vigour, Every one will perceive how little discipline, went through all the countries of Europe counsel, or fortitude, were to be expected from sounding the alarm of the holy war against the such a miserable rabble. This expedition was infidel nations, and exhorting all Christian distinguished, in the French language, by the rinces to draw the sword against the tyrants name of croisade, and all who embarked in it of Palestine; nor did he stop here; but, with a were called croises, croisards, or cross-bearers, View to engage the superstitious and ignorant not only because the end of this holy war was multitude in his cause, he carried about with to wrest the cross of Christ out of the hands him a letter, which he said was written in of the infidels, but also on account of the conheaven, and addressed to all true Christians, secrated cross of various colours, which every to animate their zeal for the deliverance of soldier wore upon his right shoulder.* their brethren, who groaned under the oppressive burthen of a Mohammedan yoke.* VI. In consequence of these grand preparations, eight hundred thousand men, in separate V. When Urban saw the way prepared by bodies, and under different commanders, set the exhortations of the hermit, who had put out for Constantinople, in 1096, that, after rethe spirits of the people every where in a fer- ceiving both assistance and direction from ment, and had kindled in their breasts a vehe- Alexis Comnenius the Grecian emperor, they ment zeal for that holy carnage which the might pursue their march into Asia. One of church had been so long meditating, he as- the principal divisions of this great body marchsembled a grand and numerous council at Pla- ed under the guidance of Peter the Hermit, centia, in 1095, and recommended warmly, for the author and fomenter of the war, who was the first time, the sacred expedition against girded with a rope, and continued to appear the Saracens.t This arduous enterprize was with all the marks of an austere solitary. The far from being approved by the greatest part adventurers who composed this first division of this numerous assembly, notwithstanding committed the most flagitious crimes, which the presence of the emperor's legates, who, in so incensed the inhabitants of the countries their master's name, represented most patheti- through which they passed, particularly those cally how necessary it was to set limits to the of Hungary and Bulgaria, that they rose up in nower of the victorious infidels, whose autho-arms and massacred the greatest part of them. ity and dominion increased from day to day. The pontiff's proposal was, however, renewed with the same zeal, and with the desired success, some time after this, in the council assembled at Clermont, where Urban was present. The pompous and pathetic speech which he delivered on this occasion, made a deep and powerful impression upon the minds of the French, whose natural character renders them much superior to the Italians in encountering difficulties, facing danger, and attempting the execution of the most perilous designs: so that an innumerable multitude, composed of all ranks and orders in the nation, offered themselves as volunteers in this sacred expedition. This numerous host was looked upon as formidable in the highest degree, and equal to the most glorious enterprizes and exploits, while, in reality, it was no more than an unwieldy body without life and vigour, and was weak and contemptible in every respect. This vill appear sufficiently evident when we con This circumstance is mentioned by the abbot Dodechinus, in his Continuat. Chronici Mariani Scoti, apud Scriptores Germanicos Jo. Pistorii, tom. 1. p. 402. For an account of Peter, see Du-Fresne's notes upon the Alexias of Anna Comnena. This council was the most numerous of any that had been hitherto assembled, and was, on that account, holden in the open fields. There were present at it two hundred bishops, four thousand ecclesiastics, and three hundred thousand laymen. Theod. Ruinart. in Vit. Urbani II. sect. ccxxv. p. 224, 229, 240, 272, &c. tom. iii. op. posthum. Mabilloni et Ruinarti.-Jo. Harduini Concilia, tom. xi. nart ii. p. 1725.-Baron. Annal. Eccles. tom. xi. ad innum 1035, n. xxxii. 648 A like fate attended several other divisions of the same army, who, under the conduct of weak and unskilful chiefs, wandered abou, like an undisciplined band of robbers, plundering the cities that lay in their way, and spreading misery and desolation wherever they came. The armies that were headed by illustrious commanders, distinguished by their birth and their military endowments, arrived more happily at the capital of the Grecian empire. That which was commanded by Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine, who deserves a place among the greatest heroes, whether of ancient or modern times,† and by his brother Baldwin, was composed of eighty thousand well chosen troops, horse and foot, and di *See Abrah. Bzovius, Continuat. Annal. Baronii. tom. xv. ad annum 1410, n. ix. p. 322, edit. Colon.L'Enfant, Histoire du Concile de Pise, tom. ii. lib. v. p. 60. The writers who have treated of this holy war are mentioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, in his Lux Evangelii toto Orbe exoriens, cap. xxx. p. 518. The Benedictine monks have given an ample account of this magnanimous chief, whose character was a bright assemblage of all Christian, civil, and heroic virtues, in their Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. viii. p. 598. The engaging and illustrious virtues of Godfrey had drawn from all parts a prodigious number of volunteers, who were ambitious to fight under his standard. The magnitude of this host, however, perplexed the valiant chief, who, on that account, divided it into several bodies, and, finding in Peter the Hermit the same ambitious and military spirit that had prevailed in him before his retreat from the world, declared him the general of the first division, which was detached from the rest, and ordered to march immediately to Constantinople. By this mea rected its march through Germany and Hungary. Another host, which was headed by Raymond, earl of Toulouse, passed through the Sclavonian territories. Robert, earl of Flanders, Robert, duke of Normandy,* Hugh, brother to Philip I. king of France, embarked their respective forces in a fleet which was as- But this illustrious hero, whose other emisembled at Brundisi and Tarento, whence they nent qualities were adorned with the greatest were transported to Durazzo, or Dyrrhachium,|| modesty, refused that high title,* though he as it was anciently called. These armies were governed Jerusalem with that valour, equity, followed by Boemond, duke of Apulia and || and prudence, which have rendered his name Calabria, at the head of a chosen and numer-immortal. Having chosen a small arry to ous body of valiant Normans. || 1099, seemed to crown their expedition with the desired success. In this city were laid the foundations of a new kingdom, at the head of which was placed the famous Godfrey, whom the army saluted king of Jerusalem with an unanimous voice. VII. This army was the greatest, and, in outward appearance, the most formidable, that had been known in the memory of man; and though, before its arrival at Constantinople, it was diminished considerably by the difficulties and oppositions it had met with on the way, yet, such as it was, it made the Grecian emperor tremble, and filled his mind with the most anxious and terrible apprehensions of some secret design against his dominions. His fears, however, were dispelled, when he saw these legions pass the straits of Gallipolis, and direct their march toward Bithynia.† The first successful enterprize, that was formed against the infidels, was the siege of Nice, the capital of Bithynia, which was taken in 1097; thence the victorious army proceeded into Syria, and in the following year subdued Antioch, which, with its fertile territory, was granted, by the assembled chiefs, to Boemond, duke of Apulia. Edessa fell next into the hands of the victors, and became the property of Baldwin, brother to Godfrey of Bouillon. The conquest of Jerusalem, which, after a siege of five weeks, submitted to their arms in sure Godfrey freed himself from the dregs of that astonishing multitude which flocked to his camp. Father Maimbourg, notwithstanding his immoderate zeal for the holy war, and that fabulous turn which enabled him to represent it in the most favourable points of view, acknowledges frankly, that the first divisions of this prodigious army committed the most abominable enormities in the countries through which they passed, and that there was no kind of insolence, injustice, impurity, barbarity, and violence, of which they were not guilty. Nothing perhaps in the annals of history can equal the flagitious deeds of this infernal rabble. See particularly Maimbourg, Histoire des Croisades, tom. i. liv. i. p. 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, second edit. in 12mo. Eldest son of William the Conqueror. Our author, for the sake of brevity, passes over the contests and jealousies, that subsisted be peror. The character of the latter is differently painted by different historians. The warm defend ers of the crusade represent him as a most perfidious prince, who, under the show of friendship and zeal, aimed at the destruction of Godfrey's army. Others consider him as a wise, prudent politician, who, by artifice and stratagem, warded off the danger he had reason to apprehend from the formidable legions that passed through his dominions; and part of which, particularly the army commanded by Peter the Hermit, ravaged his most fruitful territories in the most barbarous manner, and pillaged even the suburbs of the capital of the empire. The truth of the matter is, that, if Alexis cannot be vindicated from the charge of perfidy, the holy warriors are, on the other hand, chargeable with many acts of brutality and injustice. See Maimbourg, Histoire des Croisades, livre i. et ii. tween the chief of the crusade and the Grecian em Before the arrival of Godfrey in Asia, the army, or rather rabble, commanded by Peter the Hermit in such a ridiculous manner as might be expected from a wrong-headed monk, received a ruinus defeat from the young Soliman. support him in his new dignity, he permitted the rest of the troops to return into Europe. He did not, however, long enjoy the fruits of a victory, in which his heroic valour had been so gloriously displayed, but died about a year after the conquest of Jerusalem, leaving his dominions to his brother Baldwin, prince of Edessa, who assumed the title of king without the least hesitation. VIII. If we examine the motives that engaged the popes, more particularly Urban II., to kindle this holy war, which in its progress and issue was so detrimental to almost all the countries of Europe, we shall probably be persuaded that its origin is to be derived from the corrupt notions of religion, which prevailed in those barbarous times. It was thought inconsistent with the duty and character of Christians, to suffer that land which was blessed with the ministry, distinguished by the miracles, and consecrated by the blood of the Saviour of men, to remain under the dominion of his most inveterate enemies. It was also deemed a very important branch of true piety to visit the holy places in Palestine; but such peregrinations were extremely dangerous, while the despotic Saracens were in possession of that country. Nor is it to be denied, that these motives of a religious kind were accompanied and rendered more effectual by an anxious apprehension of the growing power of the Turks, who had already subdued the greatest part of the Grecian empire, and might soon carry into Europe, and more particularly into Italy, their victorious arms. There are, it must be confessed, several learned men who have accounted otherwise for this pious, or rather fanatical, expedition They imagine that the Roman pontiff's recornmended this sacred campaign with a view of augmenting their own authority, and weaken ing the power of the Latin emperors and princes; and that these princes countenanced and encouraged it in hopes of getting rid, by that measure, of their powerful and warlike vassals, and of becoming masters of their lands and possessions.† These conjectures, *All the historians, who have written of this holy war, applaud the answer which Godfrey returned to the offer that was made him of a crown of gold, as a mark of his accession to the throne of Jerusalem; the answer was, that "he could not bear "the thought of wearing a crown of gold in that "city, where the King of kings had been crowned "with thorns." This answer was sublime in the eleventh century. †The part of this hypothesis, that relates to the views of the Roman pontiffs, has been adopted as an undoubted truth, not only by many protestant histo rians, but also by several writers of the Romish communion. See Bened. Accoltus de bello Sacro it however plausible in appearance, are still no more than conjectures. The truth seems to be this; that the pope and the European princes were engaged at first in these crusades by a principle of superstition only; but when, Infideles, lib i. p. 16.-Basnage, Histoire des Egli Jes Reformees, tom. i. period. v. p. 235.-Vertot, listoire des Chevaliers de Malthe, tom. i. liv. iii. p. 302, 308; liv. iv. p. 423.-Baillet, Histoire des Demelez. de Boniface VIII. avec Philippe le Bel, p. 76. Histoire du Droit Ecclesiastique Francois, tom. i. P. in process of time, they learned by experience, that these holy wars contributed much to in crease their opulence and to extend their authority, by sacrificing their wealthy and pow erful rivals, new motives were presented to and ambition and avarice seconded and enencourage these expeditions into Palestine, forced the dictates of faraticism and superstition. IX. Without determining any thing con cerning the justice or injustice of these wars, * I do not pretend to decide the question concerning the lawfulness of the crusades; a question which, when it is considered with attention and impartia 236, 299. To such, however, as consider matters attentively, this hypothesis will appear destitute of any solid foundation. Certain it is, that the pontiff's could never have either foreseen, or imagined, that so many European princes, and such prodigious multitudes of people, would take arms against the infility, will appear not only extremely difficult, but also dels, and march into Palestine; nor could they be assured before-hand, that this expedition would tend to the advancement of their opulence and authority; for all the accessions of influence and wealth, which the popes, and the clergy in general, derived from these holy wars, were of a much later date than their origin, and were acquired by degrees, rather by lucky hits, than by deep-laid schemes; and this alone is sufficient to show, that the pontiffs, in forming the plan, and exhorting to the prosecution of these wars, had no thoughts of extending thereby the limits of their authority. We may add, to this consideration, another of no less weight in the matter before us; and that is the general opinion which prevailed at this time, both among the clergy and the people, that the conquest of Palestine would be finished in a short time, in a single campaign; that the Divine Providence would interpose, in a miraculous manner, to accomplish the ruin of the infidels; and that, after the taking of Jerusalem, the greatest part of the European princes would return home with their troops, which last circumstance was by no means favourable to the views which the popes are supposed to have formed of increasing their opulence and extending their dominion. Of all the conjectures that have been entertained upon this aubject, the most improbable and groundless is that which supposes that Urban II, recommended, with auch ardour, this expedition into Palestine, with a view of weakening the power of the emperor Henry IV. with whom he had a violent dispute concerning the investiture of bishops. They who adopt this zonjecture, must be little acquainted with the history of these times; or at least they forget, that the first armies that marched into Palestine against the Infidels, were chiefly composed of Franks and Normans, and that the Germans, who were the enemies of Urban II, were, in the beginning, extremely iverse to this sacred expedition. Many other considerations might be added to illustrate this matter, which, for the sake of brevity, I pass in silence. highly doubtful. It is, however, proper to inform the That part of the hypothesis, which relates to the kings and princes of Europe, and supposes that they countenanced the holy war to get rid of their pow-reproach in this matter, and gives no offence to the erful vassals, is as groundless as the other, which we have been now refuting. It is, indeed, adopted by several eminent writers, such as Vertot (Hist. de Malthe, liv. iii. p. 309,) Boulainvilliers, and others, who pretend to a superior and uncommon insight into the policy of these remote ages. The reasons. however, which these great men employed to support their opinion, may be all comprehended in this ingle argument, viz. Many kings, especially "among the Franks, became more opulent and pow"erful by the number of their vassals, who lost their "lives and fortunes in this holy war; therefore, "these princes not only permitted, but warmly "countenanced the prosecution of this war from "selfish and ambitious principles." The weakness of this conclusion must strike every one at first sigi. We are wonderfully prone to attribute both to the Roman pontiffs, and to the princes of this barbarous age, much more sagacity and cunning than they really possessed; and we deduce from the events the principles and views of the actors, which is a defective and uncertain manner of reasoning With respect to the pontiffs, it appears most probaole that their immense opulence and authority were acquired, rather by their improving dexterously the opportunities that were offered to them, than by the schemes they had formed for extending their domiaion or filling their coffers. Dr. Mosheim seems too modest, and even timorous in his manner of arraigning the justice of this holy war, which was so absurd in its principle, and so abominable in the odious circumstances that attended it. His respect, perhaps, for the Teutonic crosses which abound in Germany, and are the marks of an order that derives its origin from these fanatical expeditions into Palestine, may have occa sioned that ambiguity and circumspection in his ex. pressions, through which, however, it is easy to perceive his disapprobation of the crusades. The holy place profaned by the dominion of infidels, was the apparent pretext for this fanatical war. What holy place? Jerusalem, say the knights errant of Palestine. But they forget that Jerusalem was a city which, by the conduct of its inhabitants and the crucifixion of Christ, had become most odious in the eye of God; that it was visibly loaded with a divine malediction, and was the miserable theatre of the most tremendous judgmer ts and calamities that ever were inflicted upon any nation. Had the case been otherwise, we know of no right which Christianity gives its professors to seize the territories, and in ade the possessions of unbelievers Had the Jews |