a very extensive circulation. By far the most popular of all is his 'Die Wunder des Himmels,' of which the 8th edition was published (1895-7). It ranks as one of the best works of astronomy for the use of general readers.

Littrow, Karl von, Austrian astronomer: b. Kasan, Russia, 18 July 1811; d. Venice 16 Nov 1877. He was a son of Johann Littrow (q.v.), whom he assisted in the Vienna Observatory from 1831, and succeeding him as director in 1842. He edited the works of his father, adding considerably to 'Die Wunder des Himmels,' and was the author of 'Populäre Geometrie (1839); Verzeichnis der geographischen Ortsbestimmungen' (1844-6).

Liturgy (Greek Maroupyia means a public service; used at Athens to mean a public service which the richer citizens discharged at their own expense). The Septuagint translators used the Greek word leitourgos for that service of God in the Sanctuary. In the Hebrew it had various kindred meanings; in the Old Testament it usually denotes the service of a Jewish priest, but in the New Testament it is used of any service rendered to God. In the 4th century, the word as applied to priestly ministrations was generally recognized; and while it continued in use as meaning any solemn service, it was applied especially to the Eucharistic service. It is in this sense that the word is used by the Greek Church when they say "Divine liturgy."

The records extant which show the exact liturgy of the Christian Church in the 1st century are more the allusions found in documents of the 2d century. From the year 150 there are numerous proofs to show the existence of a fixed order and fixed words for the service of the mass or for the Eucharistic service. This service or liturgy was not made just when mentioned by Cyprian, and in 138 by Justin, and many others who committed to writing the order of the services or the liturgy. But there is not sufficient proof to warrant the assertion that there was any entire written liturgy before the 4th century. As the liturgies exist to-day they may be divided into five groups or families of liturgies, distinguished from each other chiefly, though not entirely, by the different arrangement of their parts. Three of the groups are Oriental and two are Western. They are: (1) The West Syrian Group, which includes the Liturgies of Saint James, Saint Basil, Saint Chrysostom, and that of Armenia. In this group the intercession for the living and the dead is placed after the invocation of the Holy Spirit, which in Oriental liturgies follows the

consecration.

(2) The Alexandrian Group, which includes three Greek liturgies; Saint Mark, Saint Basil, and Saint Gregory, also the Coptic liturgies. This group is characterized by the "Great Intercession" for the living and the dead being placed in the midst of the Preface.

(3) The East Syrian Group includes the liturgies in the Syriac language as used by those who belong to the Roman Catholic Church. In this group the "general intercession" is placed between the words of institution and the invocation of the Holy Spirit.

(4) The Liturgies of Gaul and Spain. In this group the "Great Intercession" comes just after the offertory, though the Mozarabic liturgy

has a memento of the living before the Pater Noster.

(5) Gallican Liturgy. In this the intercession is divided, that of the living is before consecration, and that of the dead after consecration.

That part of the "Liturgy of the Mass" called the "Canon" is very ancient, and existed about as at present since the time of the Apostles (see MASS; MISSAL). The liturgy of the Church of England is derived from the Ephesine original through the ancient Gallican liturgy which was brought to France by Greek missionaries, who were accustomed to use the form known as the liturgy of Saint John. There is no invocation of the Holy Spirit in the present English form, although the Protestant Episcopal Church has restored the invocation, like the Scottish Episcopal Church. There is, however, no ritual element wanting in these two English forms whether they be compared with the Greek or Latin liturgies. The liturgy in use in the Protestant Episcopal Church more nearly resembles the Gallican liturgy than any other group, but in some respects there is a difference in arrangement, and also in meaning. There is no intercession for the dead, and the intercession for the living comes before the Communion.

Bibliography.-Tertullian, 'De Corona'; Cyprian, Epistle'; Report of Council in Trullo; Probst, Liturgie der drei ersten Jahrhunderte,' who claims that there was a written liturgy before 150; Hammond, Ancient Liturgies; Smith and Cheetum, Liturgies'; Rock, The Church of Our Fathers, as Seen in Saint Osmond's Rite for the Cathedral of Salisbury' (1904); De Herdt, Sacra Liturgia' (3 vols.).

Lit'uus, (1) a crooked staff, represented in works of art as borne by the ancient Roman augurs in their divinations. It was like a crozier in shape. (2) A trumpet, having a mouth which curved upward, and which was used by the Roman priests and cavalry. (3) In geometry, a spiral, of which the characteristic property is that the square of any two radii vectores are reciprocally proportional to the angles which they respectively make with a certain line given in position, and which is an asymptote to the spiral.

Liudger, li-ood'ger, Saint, the first bishop of Münster, Germany: b. Friesland about 744; d. Billerbeck 26 March 809. He studied in England under Alcuin, and returned to preach Christianity to his countrymen. When Wittekind was sent to Friesland in 784, Liudger abandoned his mission and went to Rome. Subsequently he returned to become the first bishop of Münster. The various Vita S. Liudigeri are collected in the 'Geschichtsquellen des Bistums Münster) (Diekamp 1881). Consult also the Lives by Hüsing (1878); Pingsmann (1879); and Krimphove (1886).

Liudprand, li-ood'prănd, Liutprand, or Liuzo, Italian historian: b. about 922; d. 972. His father, He was of a noble Lombard lineage. who was King Hugo's ambassador to Constantinople, dying when the son was not more than five years old, young Liudprand was educated as a page in King Hugo's court in Pavia, and later entered the Church. Hugo's successor, Berengarius, made him chancellor, and in 949 sent him on an important diplomatic mission to Con

stantinople. Soon afterward he joined himself to the Emperor Otho I., who, in 962, made him bishop of Cremona, and in 968 sent him on an important but unsuccessful mission to the court of the Eastern Church, which called forth his bitter 'De Legatione Constantinopolitana.' His 'Antapodosis' covering the period from 886-950. and De Rebus Gestis Ottonis Magni imperatoris, from 960 to 964, are important sources of 10th century history. They are all found in the 'Monumenta Germaniæ Historica.'

Liu-kiu, le-oo'ke-oo', or Loo-choo Islands, Japan, a chain of 37 islands, mostly small, forming an integral part of the empire, and extending irregularly in a southwestern direction between Kiu-shiu and Formosa. The islands were conquered by the Prince of Satsuma in 1609. They constitute the Japanese prefecture of Okinawa, with an area of 1,863 square miles; pop. 160,000. Oshima and Okinawa are the only islands of considerable size. Capital, Shiuri in Okinawa. See JAPAN.

Liu-Kun-Yi, Chinese statesman: b. Hunan about 1820; d. Nanking 6 Oct. 1902. He received a military education, and though not a scholar held high official positions. In 1861 he commanded one of the armies raised to oppose the Taiping rebels, and defeated them by a series of successful maneuvers. At the time of the Boxer outbreak he was viceroy of Nanking, the so-called "southern capital of China, and in spite of the vigorous anti-foreign agitation in his own province and the hostile attitude of the Imperial Government at Peking, he refused to join the anti-foreign movement, and used his foreigndrilled troops to suppress all Boxer demonstrations. In this he was supported by the viceroy of Wuchang, and these two viceroys prevented the spread of the Boxer movement to the valley of the Yang-tse-Kiang, and were consequently influential in protecting Chinese interests in the subsequent peace negotiations.

Liutprand, Italian historian. See LIUD

PRAND.

Liveing, George Downing, English chemist and surgeon: b. Nayland, Suffolk, 21 Dec. 1827. He was graduated at St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1850, and in 1853 he became a fellow and lecturer in natural science in that college. He was appointed professor of chemistry at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1860; and in 1861 professor of chemistry in the University of Cambridge. In 1852 he established at his own expense the first chemical laboratory for undergraduates in Cambridge, and may be said to be the founder of the system of experimental teaching that is now such a prominent feature of that university. He was instrumental in securing the examination and inspection by the university of secondary schools, and the admission of girls' schools to the examinations. He also took an active part in the establishment in 1873 of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, and in 1875 of the medical examinations for the Diploma of Public Health. He promoted the establishment of the School of Agricultural Science at Cambridge. He has published: On the Transmutation of Matter' (Cambridge Essays, 1st series, 1855); Ultra-Violet Spectra of the Elements (with Prof. Dewar, Transactions' of the Royal Society, 1883); Chemical Equilibrium the Result of the Dissipation of Energy) (1885); 'Report on the University Colleges (with Mr. Warren, 1897); and many papers on spectroscopy, crystallization, etc., in the 'Proceedings' of the Royal Society, the 'Proceedings' of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Philosophical Magazine.'

Live Oak, a species of evergreen oak found growing in various parts of the United States, Central America, and Cuba. See OAK.

Live Stock, American. The animals which emigrants brought from Europe and the British Isles gave America a mixed aggregation of traits and types, from which came our native cattle, our wild horses, and the common hog and sheep. From these the pioneers bred; their descendants, in turn, improving these breeds by importation and selection, aided by a temperate climate, fertile soil, rich herbage and grasses and grains such as no other country had ever furnished for the foundation and development of domestic animals. The result has been to give to the United States in one century the highest type and greatest number of high-grade and purebred animals of any nation on the earth.

From 4,336,719 in 1850 the number of horses in the Union had increased to 21,203,901 in 1900, a ratio of more than one horse to every family. The imports of horses into the United States, from 45,610, valued at $3,726,534 in 1884, had decreased to 3,785, valued at $985,738 in 1901, while the export of horses in 1884, 2,721, valued at $424,317, had increased in 1901 to 99,809, valued at $10,037,204. The majority of the imported horses are for breeding purposes. During the last quarter of the 19th century the rapid increase of the lower grade of horses from the ranches of the West and Southwest had lowered the price of farm and common draft or street horses, and the market was further depreciated by the rapid displacement of horses in street car service by the various electric street railroad systems. New avenues for disposal of the surplus had to be opened, and as even the price of cured horse meat for shipment to Bel

gium and Germany fell as low as six cents per pound, many thousands of inferior animals, unemployed and disabled horses, found their way to fertilizer factories. These factories buy castoff horses as low as $2 per head; the hide is worth, on an average, $3.25, the bones $1.25, the fat and tankage about as much more; and with the resultant fertilizer yields handsome profits. The result of the wholesale destruction and diminution of these inferior animals has been a rapid improvement, still progressing, in the quality of the American horse. See various articles under title HORSE for information regarding that animal.

In the west and south the mule, as a draft and farm animal, has long been of great service. Gen. Washington was America's first successful breeder of mules. The king of Spain presented Washington with a jack from his royal stud in 1787. Gen. Lafayette also presented him with one, which sired Washington's favorite jack, Compound. To him he bred his best coach mares, and produced such valuable animals that the southern planters began to use their thoroughbred mares for raising mules. The mule being more steady at a draft, less liable to injury or disease, less subject to lameness, and being able to endue heat and hardship better than the horse, his price for heavy work has kept as high as that of draft horses. The number of mules in the United States increased from 3,438,523 in 1900 to 4,123,000 in 1910. There is no import trade in mules, the trade being wholly domestic and export. From 1,965, valued at $238.591, were exported in 1891; in 1900, 50,179, valued at $4.757,892; in 1910, 4,512, valued at $614,094. The large exports of horses and mules in 1900-1901 was in great part due to the demand for war purposes in South Africa. In 1902 the export of horses was 60,694, value $6,086,012; in 1910, 28,910, valued at $4,081,157.

In American cattle, not only good health but good blood is remarkable; the immense herds have been singularly free from the diseases which from time to time have swept off the cattle of middle and southern Europe. Pleuropneumonia and anthrax entered our shores with imported cattle from lands where such diseases have a hold, but these plagues spread over no great extent of country. Under the efficient organization of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, outbreaks of any contagion speedily disappeared; and every cargo of cattle leaving our ports carries with it a clean bill of health. Fresh importations are continually being made, and in our herds is the blood of the choicest of the Devon, the shorthorn, the longhorn, the Hereford, the Sussex, and the Norfolk of England; the Ayrshires, Angus, and Galloway of Scotland; the Kerrys of Ireland; the Alderney, Guernsey, and Jersey of the Channel Islands, and the Holstein from Holland.

The first English colonial settlement on the James River, brought cattle from England as early as 1607. Succeeding colonies brought cattle from the countries whence they emigrated. In 1625 the settlers of New York made an importation from Holland, which was followed by further importations, each leaving its impress on the cattle of that region. The English colonies in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the Dutch in New Jersey, the Swedes in Delaware, and the Danes on the Piscataqua

River, all brought cattle from the countries nearest the ports from which they sailed. The cattle of Normandy came in with the French around Quebec, and the Spanish cattle from South America and Mexico made their impress on the Southwest, as seen in what are now called Texas cattle. The shorthorns have been more used, perhaps, than any other beef breed for improvement of stock; and the early settlers were more interested in developing cattle that could concentrate the wealth of grass and corn of the fertile valleys into beef than into butter and cheese.

Soon after the Revolutionary War a few shorthorn cattle had been imported into Virginia. They were well fleshed, and the cows gave as much as 32 quarts of milk a day. In 1783, Matthew Patton, Sr., of the South Fork of the Potomac, imported a longhorn bull. In 1785 three of Patton's sons moved to Kentucky, taking with them some of the half-bred heifers. In 1795 they sent back to Virginia and Maryland for cattle known as "milk cattle." In 1803 the Pattons brought out the "milk bull" Pluto 825, a noted breeder. Descendants of this bull and another named Mars, and a cow, Venus, found their way into the Virginia Reservation of Ohio, and laid the foundation for future improvement of cattle in the West. In 1817, Lewis Sanders, of Lexington, Ky., imported three bulls and three heifers from England, which were of so good a quality that they laid the foundation of many excellent herds. In 1818, Cornelius Coolidge, of Boston, Mass., imported a heifer and a bull. About 1820 several public-spirited men in the neighborhood of Boston brought out at different times a number of valuable animals, whose descendants are still numerous in New England. In 1823, General Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, N. Y., imported the bull Washington and two heifers. In 1824, Colonel John Hare Powell, of Philadelphia, began to import shorthorns, and bred largely at his estate near the city, selling them to go into Ohio and Kentucky. The first drove of fat cattle from the fertile Scioto country and the Virginia Reservation crossed the Alleghanies in the spring of 1805. Of the 68 head, 22 were disposed of at Morefield, Va. The remainder were driven on to Baltimore where they were sold at a net profit of $31.77 per head. The problem of getting cattle from the grazing lands of the West to the Eastern markets was solved, and its effects were as great as those of the successful shipment later of the first cargo of fat cattle to England, or the first efforts of Swift & Company, in sending dressed beef from Chicago to New England. The Virginians of Ohio and Kentucky co-operated in the exchange and improvement of their best cattle. Not content with the slow improvement of cattle, various Ohio breeders under the lead of ex-Governor Duncan McArthur, Felix Renick, George Renick, William Renick, and S. S. Denney, resolved "to try the experiment of direct importation from Great Britain," and formed a company 2 November 1833, with ample capital and unlimited public spirit, as no subscriber expected any profit on the money invested. Mr. Felix Renick, E. J. Harness, and Josiah Renick were sent to England to buy the best cattle they could find, regardless of price. Their first importation consisted of seven bulls and twelve cows and heifers. Further importations folowed. In 1835 and 1836 Felix Renick had