L

it'tlehales, George Washington, Amercan hydrographic engineer: b. Schuylkill County, Pa., 14 Oct. 1860. He was graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1883. He is an associate editor of the International Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism,' and has published, 'The Development of Great Circle Sailing'; 'The Methods and Results of the Survey of Lower California'; 'The Magnetic Dip or Inclination'; 'The Azimuths of Celestial Bodies'; and other works, all published by the United States Navy Department.

Lit'tlejohn, Abram Newkirk, American Protestant Episcopal bishop: b. Florida, Montgomery County, N. Y., 13 Dec. 1824; d. Williamstown, Mass., 3 Aug. 1901. He was graduated at Union College in 1845 and took orders in the Episcopal Church in 1850. He was rector of St. Paul's, New Haven, Conn., 1851-60, and of Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1860-9. He was made bishop of Long Island in 1869, and from 1874 was in charge of American Episcopal churches on the continent of Europe. He wrote 'Philosophy of Religion'; 'The Christian Ministry'; etc.

Littlejohn, John Martin, American physiologist and osteopathist: b. Glasgow, Scotland, 1867. He was graduated from the University of Glasgow, afterward studied theology and was ordained in 1886. He was a tutor in Glasgow University, principal of Rosemont College 1890, of Amity College, Iowa, 1894-7, and has been president of the board of trustees of the American School of Osteopathy, Kirksville, Mo., from 1900, and professor there from 1897. He has published The Political Theory of the Schoolmen and Grotius' (1894); Text-Book on Physiology' (1898); Lectures on PsychoPathology' (1900).

Littleton, or Lyttleton, SIR Thomas, English jurist: b. Frankley, Worcestershire, 1402; d. there 23 Aug. 1481. He was a student at the Inner Temple, sheriff in 1447, recorder of Coventry in 1450, and in 1453 was made sergeant-at-law. After holding several legal appointments he became justice of the common pleas in 1466. His treatise on 'Tenures,' with the well-known commentary by Sir Edward Coke, was long the standard authority on the English law of real property. It was written in legal French, and first published at London about 1480. There are many subsequent editions.

Littleton, N. H., town, in Grafton County, on the Ammonoosuc River, and on the Boston & Maine railroad. When it was first settled in 1770, it was called Apthrop. When it was incorporated, in 1784, the name was changed to Littleton. It is in a section of the State noted for its beautiful scenery and cool summer climate. The river furnishes considerable waterpower; and the town has several manufactories. Its chief manufactures are shoes, gloves, wagons and carriages, whetstones, bobbins,

VOL. 13-1

stereoscopic views, wooden ware, and furniture. It has a good public library; the building is a gift from Andrew Carnegie. The government of the town is administered by means of the annual town meeting. Pop. (1910) 4,069.

Littoral Deposits. See SANDSTONE.

Littré, Maximilien Paul Emile, mäk-simil-i-on pōl a-mel le-tra, French philosopher: b. Paris 1 Feb. 1801; d. there 2 June 1881. After completing his course at school his study of. medicine was interrupted by the death of his father. He then engaged in teaching for a livelihood, took an active part in the revolution of 1830, and soon after was invited by Armand Carrel, editor of the 'National,' to write for that paper. In 1839 he published the first volume of an edition of Hippocrates in the original, with a French translation and copious notes. This work, in 10 volumes, secured his admission to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. He translated Strauss's 'Leben Jesu," and having adopted Comtist principles, wrote an able and lucid synopsis of them in his 'De la Philosophie Positive' (1845). In 1854 he was appointed editor of the Journal dis Savants and in 1863 commenced the publication of his great work, the 'Dictionnaire de la Langue française,' which has been called the best dictionary of any living language yet published. This was finished in 1873, two years previous to which Littré had been admitted into the Académie Française. Another important work of his was an edition of Pliny's 'Natural History' with a translation and notes. During the siege of Paris he retired with his family to Bordeaux, and was appointed professor of history and geography in the polytechnic school there. He was afterward summoned to Versailles to take his seat in the senate, having been chosen by the department of the Seine. He became a life Senator in 1874. Among Littré's other works are 'Application de la Philosophie Positive au Gouvernement des Sociétés (1849); "Conservation, Révolution et Positivisme' (1852); 'Paroles de Philosophie Positive) (1859) 'Historie de la Langue française) (1862) Auguste Comte et la Philosophie Positive' (1863); Etudes sur les Barbares et le Moyen Age (1867); 'Médecine et Médecins) (1871); and Littérature et Histoire) (1875).

Lit'trow, Joseph Johann von, Austrian astronomer: b. Bischof-Teinitz, Bohemia, 13 March 1781; d. Vienna 30 Nov. 1840. In 1807 he obtained the chair of astronomy in the University of Cracow, and in 1810 accepted a similar chair in Kasan, where he founded the observatory. He became in 1816 joint director of the observatory of Buda, and from this he removed in 1819 to become director of the observatory of Vienna. He completely reorganized this establishment, and in his lectures yearly attracted a numerous audience, not only of ordinary students, but of unprofessional persons, many of them strangers from abroad. His writings, chiefly on mathematical and astronomical subjects, are numerous, and have generally had

a very extensive circulation. By far the most popular of all is his 'Die Wunder des Himmels,' of which the 8th edition was published (1895-7). It ranks as one of the best works of astronomy for the use of general readers.

Littrow, Karl von, Austrian astronomer: b. Kasan, Russia, 18 July 1811; d. Venice 16 Nov 1877. He was a son of Johann Littrow (q.v.), whom he assisted in the Vienna Observatory from 1831, and succeeding him as director in 1842. He edited the works of his father, adding considerably to 'Die Wunder des Himmels, and was the author of 'Populäre Geometrie (1839); Verzeichnis der geographischen Ortsbestimmungen' (1844-6).

Liturgy (Greek Maroupyia means a public service; used at Athens to mean a public service which the richer citizens discharged at their own expense). The Septuagint translators used the Greek word leitourgos for that service of God in the Sanctuary. In the Hebrew it had various kindred meanings; in the Old Testament it usually denotes the service of a Jewish priest, but in the New Testament it is used of any service rendered to God. In the 4th century, the word as applied to priestly ministrations was generally recognized; and while it continued in use as meaning any solemn service, it was applied especially to the Eucharistic service. It is in this sense that the word is used by the Greek Church when they say "Divine liturgy."

The records extant which show the exact liturgy of the Christian Church in the 1st century are more the allusions found in documents of the 2d century. From the year 150 there are numerous proofs to show the existence of a fixed order and fixed words for the service of the mass or for the Eucharistic service. This service or liturgy was not made just when mentioned by Cyprian, and in 138 by Justin, and many others who committed to writing the order of the services or the liturgy. But there is not sufficient proof to warrant the assertion that there was any entire written liturgy before the 4th century. As the liturgies exist to-day they may be divided into five groups or families of liturgies, distinguished from each other chiefly, though not entirely, by the different arrangement of their parts. Three of the groups are Oriental and two are Western. They are: (1) The West Syrian Group, which includes the Liturgies of Saint James, Saint Basil, Saint Chrysostom, and that of Armenia. In this group the intercession for the living and the dead is placed after the invocation of the Holy Spirit, which in Oriental liturgies follows the

consecration.

(2) The Alexandrian Group, which includes three Greek liturgies; Saint Mark, Saint Basil, and Saint Gregory, also the Coptic liturgies. This group is characterized by the "Great Intercession" for the living and the dead being placed in the midst of the Preface.

(3) The East Syrian Group includes the liturgies in the Syriac language as used by those who belong to the Roman Catholic Church. In this group the "general intercession" is placed between the words of institution and the invocation of the Holy Spirit.

(4) The Liturgies of Gaul and Spain. In this group the "Great Intercession" comes just after the offertory, though the Mozarabic liturgy

has a memento of the living before the Pater Noster.

(5) Gallican Liturgy. In this the intercession is divided, that of the living is before consecration, and that of the dead after consecration.

That part of the "Liturgy of the Mass" called the "Canon" is very ancient, and existed about as at present since the time of the Apostles (see MASS; MISSAL). The liturgy of the Church of England is derived from the Ephesine original through the ancient Gallican liturgy which was brought to France by Greek missionaries, who were accustomed to use the form known as the liturgy of Saint John. There is no invocation of the Holy Spirit in the present, English form, although the Protestant Episcopal Church has restored the invocation, like the Scottish Episcopal Church. There is, however, no ritual element wanting in these two English forms whether they be compared with the Greek or Latin liturgies. The liturgy in use in the Protestant Episcopal Church more nearly resembles the Gallican liturgy than any other group, but in some respects there is a difference in arrangement, and also in meaning. There is no intercession for the dead, and the intercession for the living comes before the Communion.

Bibliography-Tertullian, 'De Corona'; Cyprian, Epistle'; Report of Council in Trullo; Probst, Liturgie der drei ersten Jahrhunderte, who claims that there was a written liturgy before 150; Hammond, Ancient Liturgies; Smith and Cheetum, Liturgies'; Rock, The Church of Our Fathers, as Seen in Saint Osmond's Rite for the Cathedral of Salisbury' (1904); De Herdt, 'Sacra Liturgia) (3 vols.).

Lit'uus, (1) a crooked staff, represented in works of art as borne by the ancient Roman augurs in their divinations. It was like a crozier in shape. (2) A trumpet, having a mouth which curved upward, and which was used by the Roman priests and cavalry. (3) In geometry, a spiral, of which the characteristic property is that the square of any two radii vectores are reciprocally proportional to the angles which they respectively make with a certain line given in position, and which is an asymptote to the spiral.

Liudger, li-ood'ger, Saint, the first bishop of Münster, Germany: b. Friesland about 744: d. Billerbeck 26 March 809. He studied in England under Alcuin, and returned to preach Christianity to his countrymen. When Wittekind was sent to Friesland in 784, Liudger abandoned his mission and went to Rome. Subsequently he returned to become the first bishop of Münster. The various Vita S. Liudigeri are collected in the 'Geschichtsquellen des Bistums Münster) (Diekamp 1881). Consult also the Lives by Hüsing (1878); Pingsmann (1879); and Krimphove (1886).

Liudprand, li-ood'prănd, Liutprand, or Liuzo, Italian historian: b. about 922; d. 972. He was of a noble Lombard lineage. His father, who was King Hugo's ambassador to Constantinople, dying when the son was not more than five years old, young Liudprand was educated as a page in King Hugo's court in Pavia, and later entered the Church. Hugo's successor, Berengarius, made him chancellor, and in 949 sent him on an important diplomatic mission to Con

stantinople. Soon afterward he joined himself to the Emperor Otho I., who, in 962, made him bishop of Cremona, and in 968 sent him on an important but unsuccessful mission to the court of the Eastern Church, which called forth his bitter 'De Legatione Constantinopolitana. His 'Antapodosis covering the period from 886-950. and De Rebus Gestis Ottonis Magni imperatoris, from 960 to 964, are important sources of 10th century history. They are all found in the 'Monumenta Germaniæ Historica.'

Liu-kiu, le-oo'kē-oo', or Loo-choo Islands, Japan, a chain of 37 islands, mostly small, forming an integral part of the empire, and extending irregularly in a southwestern direction between Kiu-shiu and Formosa. The islands were conquered by the Prince of Satsuma in 1609. They constitute the Japanese prefecture of Ókinawa, with an area of 1,863 square miles; pop. 160,000. Oshima and Okinawa are the only islands of considerable size. Capital, Shiuri in Okinawa. See JAPAN.

Liu-Kun-Yi, Chinese statesman: b. Hunan about 1820; d. Nanking 6 Oct. 1902. He received a military education, and though not a scholar held high official positions. In 1861 he commanded one of the armies raised to oppose the Taiping rebels, and defeated them by a series of successful maneuvers. At the time of the Boxer outbreak he was viceroy of Nanking, the so-called "southern capital of China, and in spite of the vigorous anti-foreign agitation in his own province and the hostile attitude of the Imperial Government at Peking, he refused to join the anti-foreign movement, and used his foreigndrilled troops to suppress all Boxer demonstrations. In this he was supported by the viceroy of Wuchang, and these two viceroys prevented the spread of the Boxer movement to the valley of the Yang-tse-Kiang, and were consequently influential in protecting Chinese interests in the subsequent peace negotiations.

Liutprand, Italian historian. See LIUD

PRAND.

Liutprant, li-oot'prănt, or Liutprand, king of the Lombards (q.v.) from 712 to 744, the period of their greatest power: b. about 688. He was an active and popular prince. He captured Ravenna in 728, defeated the dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum in 741, joined with Charles Martel against the Arabs, and extended the Lombard sway over practically the whole of Italy. His death marked the beginning of the downfall of the kingdom. His laws are codified in the Edicta Liutprandi.'

Livadia, līv-ä-dē’ä, or Lebadea, Greece, a town on the Hercyna, 52 miles northwest of Athens. It is defended by a castle; and has manufactures of cotton goods, and a trade in small articles of raw produce. Pop. 6,500. Higher up the river, in a narrow gorge, is the site of the ancient Hieron, or cave of Trophonus, and the fountains of Lethe and Mnemosyne. Livadia, a Russian imperial residence near Yalta, on the southern coast of the Crimea, Russia. It is an extensive and beautiful estate, with two fine palaces and many less important villas and lodges. It was the favorite residence of Alexander III., who died there I Nov. 1894. Live-for-ever, or Garden Orpine, a small cultivated stonecrop, Sedum telephium. See STONECROP.

Liveing, George Downing, English chemist and surgeon: b. Nayland, Suffolk, 21 Dec. 1827. He was graduated at St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1850, and in 1853 he became a fellow and lecturer in natural science in that college. He was appointed professor of chemistry at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1860; and in 1861 professor of chemistry in the University of Cambridge. In 1852 he established at his own expense the first chemical laboratory for undergraduates in Cambridge, and may be said to be the founder of the system of experimental teaching that is now such a prominent feature of that university. He was instrumental in securing the examination and inspection by the university of secondary schools, and the admission of girls' schools to the examinations. He also took an active part in the establishment in 1873 of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, and in 1875 of the medical examinations for the Diploma of Public Health. He promoted the establishment of the School of Agricultural Science at Cambridge. He has published: On the Transmutation of Matter' (Cambridge Essays, 1st series, 1855); Ultra-Violet Spectra of the Elements' (with Prof. Dewar, Transactions of the Royal Society, 1883); 'Chemical Equilibrium the Result of the Dissipation of Energy) (1885); Report on the University Colleges (with Mr. Warren, 1897); and many papers on spectroscopy, crystallization, etc., in the 'Proceedings' of the Royal Society, the 'Proceedings of the and Cambridge Philosophical Society, Philosophical Magazine.'

the

Live Oak, a species of evergreen oak found growing in various parts of the United States, Central America, and Cuba. See OAK.

Live Stock, American. The animals which emigrants brought from Europe and the British Isles gave America a mixed aggregation of traits and types, from which came our native cattle, our wild horses, and the common hog and sheep. From these the pioneers bred; their descendants, in turn, improving these breeds by importation and selection, aided by a temperate climate, fertile soil, rich herbage and grasses and grains such as no other country had ever furnished for the foundation and development of domestic animals. The result has been to give to the United States in one century the highest type and greatest number of high-grade and purebred animals of any nation on the earth.

in the Union had increased to 21,203,901 in From 4,336,719 in 1850 the number of horses 1900, a ratio of more than one horse to every family. The imports of horses into the United States, from 45,610, valued at $3,726,534 in 1884, had decreased to 3,785, valued at $985,738 in 1901, while the export of horses in 1884, 2,721, valued at $424,317, had increased in 1901 to the imported horses are for breeding purposes. 99,809, valued at $10,037,204. The majority of During the last quarter of the 19th century the rapid increase of the lower grade of horses from the ranches of the West and Southwest had lowered the price of farm and common draft or street horses, and the market was further depreciated by the rapid displacement of horses in street car service by the various electric street railroad systems. New avenues for disposal of the surplus had to be opened, and as even_the price of cured horse meat for shipment to Bel