true and word. It means, therefore, the science of the true meaning of words.

97. But grammar, as we learned in § 82, treats not only of individual words, but also of the joining of words in sentences.

98. DEFINITION.-Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the way in which words are joined

in sentences.

The word syntax is derived from two Greek words, meaning together and arrangement. It signifies, therefore, proper arrangement.

99. Syntax lays down the rules that govern the formation of all sentences, whether in prose or in verse.

100. In addition, however, to the rules of syntax, there are special rules for the arrangement of words in the musically measured sentences used in poetry.

101. DEFINITION.-Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of the rules that govern verse.

The word prosody comes from a Greek word, meaning harmonious. It properly means the measurement of verse.

EXERCISE 22.-Complete the following synopsis:

12

Grammar

Of words

Of sentences

QUESTIONS.

What are the two principal subjects of which grammar treats?
Into what may a spoken word be analyzed? What is meant by analysis?
How is an elementary sound represented? Define orthography.

What is the principle on which words are classified? What are the classes called? How many are there? Name them.

If you change the form of a word in order to express the meaning you desire to convey, what is the change called? Define inflection.

State four ways in which inflections are made, and give an example of each.

What are the inflections of a noun or a pronoun called? Of a verb? Of an adjective? Of an adverb?

How are words classified according to structure?

What is the difference between a simple word and a compound word? Between a simple word and a derivative word? Between a compound word and a derivative word?

What are the three parts of etymology? Define etymology. Define syntax. Define prosody.

CHAPTER II.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

102. DEFINITION.-Orthography is that part of grammar which treats of the correct representation by letters of the sounds that make up a word.

103. We must distinguish between spoken sounds and the names of the letters or characters used to represent these sounds in writing or printing.

Authorities differ as to the exact number of sounds used in pronouncing the words of the English language, but most of them agree in placing the number at not less than forty-three.

104. An alphabet of a language is composed of all its letters arranged in order.

The word alphabet is derived from alpha and beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet.

The earliest written characters were, like the Egyptian hieroglyphics, pictures of objects, and from these our letter forms are derived.

105. The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six in number, as follows:

ROMAN: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz.

SCRIPT: Aa, Fib, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Ij, Nk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, 2g, Rr, So, It, Uu, Vr, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz.

ITALIC: Aα, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Iï, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz.

OLD ENGLISH: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Bh, Ji, j, Kk, FI, Mm, Nu, Oo, Pp, Qq, Br, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vb, Mw, Xx, Yy, %.

106. A perfect alphabet should possess a separate character for each distinct sound.

The English alphabet is both defective and redundant. It is defective, because it has not a separate character for each sound. The letter a, for example, represents at least six distinct sounds. It is redundant, because the same sound is in some cases represented by more than one letter. For instance, the two sounds of c are also represented by k and s.

10%. The letters of the alphabet are divided into vowels and consonants.

This division rests upon the way in which the sounds represented by these letters are produced. Sound is produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords, ligaments situated on each side of the windpipe. The opening between these ligaments is called the glottis. The waves of sound are modified into vowels and consonants by the articulating organs; namely, the lips, tongue, teeth, palate, and the cavity of the nostrils.

108. A vowel sound is a sound produced by a continuous passage of the breath.

Vowel sounds are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords. The pitch or tone of a vowel is determined by the vocal chords, but its quality depends upon the configuration of the mouth or buccal tube.

For the formation of the three principal vowels we give the interior of the mouth two extreme positions. In one we round the lips and draw down the tongue, so that the cavity of the mouth assumes the shape of a bottle without a neck, and we pronounce u. In the other we narrow the lips, and draw up the tongue as high as possible, so that the buccal tube resembles a bottle with a very wide neck, and we pronounce i (as in French and German like long e). If the lips are wide open, and the tongue lies flat and in its natural position, we pronounce long a.

Between these three elementary articulations there is an indefinite variety of vowel sounds.-MORRIS, English Accidence.

109. The letters that represent the vowel sounds are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.

At the beginning of a syllable, or before a vowel in the same syllable, w and y are consonants; as, wine, twine; yield, unyielding. At the end of a word or syllable they are vowels; as, joy, joyous; cow, cow-ard.

110. A diphthong is formed by the blending of two vowel sounds into one sound in the same syllable; as, oi in boil, ow in now.

The word diphthong means literally double sound.

Often two vowel characters are written where only one is pronounced; as, fear, gauge, goat. These are not true diphthongs. The letter not to be pronounced is said to be silent.

111. The vowel characters represent nineteen sounds, which, with the accepted diacritical marks, and the more usual vowel equivalents, are given below:

a, long, as in ale; like e in prey.

ă, short, as in fat.

a, broad, as in all; like ô in fork, aw in pawn, au in faun.

ē, long, as in me; like ï in police.

ě, short, as in met; like ai in said, ay in says.

as in her; like ĩ in bird, ũ in urge.

I, long, as in ice; like y in fly.

Ĭ, short, as in tin;

ō, long, as in old;

Ŏ, short, as in not;
ũ, long, as in use;
ŭ, short, as in sun;

ų,

oi,

ow,

like y in hymn.

like ew in sew, eau in beau.
like a in what.
like ew in few.
like ở in none.

as in rude; like o in to, oō in moon.
as in pull; like o̟ in wolf, oo in foot.
as in boil; like oy in boy.

as in how; like ou in our.

112. A consonant is a sound produced by an obstruction to the breath.

The word consonant comes from the Latin con, with, and sono, I sound. The consonant sounds are so called because, though they may be sounded separately, yet they are used only in combination with vowels in forming syllables. In English, a consonant alone never forms a syllable.

113. Consonants are divided into (1) Mutes,