CIRRUS.

more especially to the rising currents which, when cooled to the dew-point, condense into cloud. The cloud masses, being heavier than the air, tend to sink, but the sinking takes place very slowly, partly because the water particles and the ice needles which compose the clouds are very small, and because the rising currents to which they owe their origin counteract the sinking process. Frequently the rising current mingles with a horizontal current, which carries with it the upper portion

STRATUS.

faintly visible. Its mean height is about 15,400 ft., and its mean velocity 48 m. per hour. Alto-cumulus are large, more or less rounded balls, flat rolls or disks of fleecy clouds in flocks, white in color, except a dark shading here and there. They average 10,000 ft. in height, and have an average speed of 34 m. per hour. Strato-cumulus are large balls or rolls of dark clouds; average height, 6,200 ft.; average velocity, 22 m. Cumulus are piledup clouds with conical or hemispherical tops and flat bases; are formed of rising currents of heated air, and therefore most common in summer and in tropical regions; average height, 4,700 ft.; average velocity, 26 m. per hour. Cumulo-nimbus is a massive cloud from which showers fall; mean height, 4,500 ft.; average movement, 33 m. per hour. Nimbus is a dark sheet of ragged cloud from which rain or snow usually falls. Its height averages only 2,900 ft. Stratus is either elevated fog floating in the air or a thin uniform layer

CUMULUS.

of the cloud and covers the sky with a uniform stratum.

The chief forms of clouds are the cirrus, cumulus, and stratus, which have been subdivided as follows: Cirrus are thin, fibrous, detached, featherlike clouds formed of ice crystals. They are the highest clouds, averaging over 29,000 ft., and move with the greatest velocity, their mean being 89 m. per hour. Cirro-stratus, or wane clouds, form a thin white veil, more or less fibrous, which produces halos and other optical phenomena. When the sky is mottled with them it is often called a "mackerel sky"; have an average

NIMBUS.

of cloud at a very low level (1,800 ft.), which moves only 16 m. per hour.

A cloud-burst is an extremely heavy rain over a small territory. It occurs only with local, not general, storms, most commonly in the hottest season and at the hottest time of day; occurs most frequently in the arid regions or on mountain sides. The rain sometimes

CLOUET

The

falls at the rate of 4 or 6 (and possibly more) in. per hour, but continues only a few moments. Meantime the phenomena of atmospheric electricity are usually marked. flood of water that descends flows off rapidly, coming down the streams with a head of water which is often destructive. A distinction is usually drawn between cloudbursts and torrential rains. The latter belong to general storms, the former to local ones, the remarkable cloud formations and sudden clearing afterwards making the name appropriate for the former and not for the latter.

Clouet (klô-a'), François, abt. 1510-80; French portrait painter; descended from a family of Flemish artists; became a court painter and a valet de chambre to the king; left many portraits of distinguished people of the highest interest from their remarkable fidelity and technical excellence. Among these are "Henri II," "Charles IX," and Elizabeth of Austria," in the Louvre; and a notable "Dauphin Francis II and Marie Stuart."

66

Clough (kluf), Anne Jemima, abt. 1822-92; English educator; b. Liverpool; sister of Arthur Hugh Clough; was influential in the founding of the N. of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women; took charge, 1871, of a house of five women students at Cambridge, which developed into Newnham College, at the head of which she remained until her death.

Clough, Arthur Hugh, 1819-61; English poet; b. Liverpool; lived five years in Charleston, S. C.; educated at Rugby and Baliol College, Oxford; held a fellowship in Oriel College, Oxford, 1841-48; warden of University Hall and Prof. of English Language and Literature in University College, London, 1849-52; resided in Cambridge, Mass., 1852-53, engaged in teaching and literary pursuits; later held a post in the Education Department, London; published "The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich," Poems on Life and Duty," "Dipsychus," a subtle dialogue expressing his hesitation between doubt and faith; "Amours de Voyage," and "Mari Magno." Clough was a man of strong religious feelings, but unfixed beliefs. He is the subject of Matthew Arnold's elegy, "Thyrsis."

Clo'ver, or Tre'foil, name properly applied to plants of the genus Trifolium, family Leguminosa, comprising about sixty indigenous species in the U. S. and many in the Old World; used for other related plants which have three leaflets, as Melilotus, the sweet clover; Medicago, the bur clover; Lespedeza striata, the Japan clover; Petalostemon, the prairie clover, etc. The true clovers are invaluable in agriculture, not only for pasturage, but chiefly because of their power of appropriating atmospheric nitrogen by their roots and bringing up fertilizing material from the deeper soil. There are five chief species in cultivation. The most important is the common or red clover (Trifolium pratense). Others are the mammoth clover (T. medium); the crimson, scarlet, or carnation clover (T. incarnatum); the alsike clover (T. hybridum); and the common white

to the U. S. They are all perennials, except the crimson clover, which is an annual; but they usually begin to fail in vigor after they have occupied the land two or three years.

Cloves, the unexpanded flowers of Eugenia aromatica and family Myrtacea. They are derived from an evergreen tree which is supposed to have existed originally in only five small islands, the Clove Islands, near the island of Jilolo. Clove trees are not now found on these islands, but they are largely cultivated in Brazil, in many islands of the Indian Ocean, in tropical Africa, and in some of the W. Indies. The tree varies from 30 to 40 ft. in height; is well branched, the branches forming a clustering crown. As soon as the buds change in color from green to red they are taken from the trees and dried by exposure to the sun and air, when they become brown in appearance. Unbroken cloves resemble a small, round-headed tack, and emit a peculiar oily, aromatic odor; the taste is spicy and pungent; the color deep brown; but on section the interior portion may be reddish. In addition to volatile oil, cloves contain a resin or gum and a peculiar tannin.

fluid, clear, and colorless, and becomes yellowThe oil of cloves freshly distilled is quite ish and finally reddish brown on exposure; specific gravity varies from 1.034 to 1.061; soluble in an equal volume of alcohol, in ether, ing substance, as and strong acetic acid. It is used as a flavortimes as a local anesthetic, particularly in a carminative, and some

cavities of teeth.

Clo'vis I, 465-511; King of the Franks; son and successor of Childeric; by a victory over the Romans and Gauls, obtained possession of Soissons, which became his capital; married, 493, Clotilda, a Christian princess, and about three years later was converted. The story of his conversion is that at the battle of Tolbiac (Zulpich), near Cologne, at which

CLOWN

being hard pressed by the Alemanni, he appealed to the god of Clotilda, promising that if victory were granted to his army, they would worship the Christian God. His conversion helped to bring the Teutonic races into closer communication with the Christian Church and Roman civilization. In 507 he defeated Alaric, King of the Visigoths, in a great battle near Poitiers, and added Aquitaine to his dominions; he chose Paris as his capital, 507, and there died. France was then divided among his sons-Thierri, Clodomir, Childeric, and Clothaire. His descendants are called Merovingians, from Merovig, the grandfather of Clovis. With him the Salic law entered France, and the alliance of the Church and State. With him, too, the distinctive history of France begins.

Clown, professional jester or buffoon. The character may have originated in the ancient Roman pantomime, which passed into the representations of the wandering acrobats of the Dark Ages, and thence into the mys teries and miracle plays, and later was developed into the harlequin by the Italians. The clown or court fool of Shakespeare's plays was a part of the household of mediæval princes and great barons. The court and pantomime fools wore a characteristic dress, motley coat and tight breeches, and carried a bauble or short staff with a ludicrous head. Sometimes asses' ears were added and a cock's comb. The clowns of Shakespeare are supposed to have been drawn from the ⚫vice in the mysteries, which the Italians again developed into the zany, a foil to the more serious and capable clown. It was the business of the zany to follow and caricature the clown by absurd imitations of his tricks.

In

Club, society of persons united for social, scientific, artistic, literary, or political ends, or for purposes of recreation. In the reign of Henry IV there was a club called "La Court de bone Compagnie." About the beginning of the seventeenth or the end of the sixteenth century the famous club at the Mermaid Tavern, London, was established. It had Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, etc., as members. About the same time Ben Jonson founded a club at the Devil Tavern, between Temple Bar and Middle Temple Gate. In 1659 the first political club, the Rota, was established. 1669 the Civil Club, which exists to this day, was established, all the members of which are citizens. Some of these early political clubs played important parts in the history of the times. Such was the October Club, named after the cheer for which it was famed, October ale, the members of which were ardent Tories. The Saturday, Brothers, and Scriblerus Clubs, each having Swift as a member, and the Calves' Head Club, formed in ridicule of the memory of Charles I; the King's Head Club, founded by the unscrupulous Shaftesbury, and the Mug House Club, so called from the ale mugs used by the members, were among the more noted political clubs of the early part of the eighteenth century. Another unique club, the Kit-Kat, famous in literature, dates from 1700. Readers of Boswell are familiar

CLYTIE

with the Ivy Lane Club established by Dr. Johnson at the King's Head, a beefsteak house in Ivy Lane, and the Literary Club, founded by Johnson and Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1764. The purely social club of the present day owes its origin to the coffee houses of the eighteenth century, where congenial spirits used to meet for social intercourse and comradeship. Many of them have remained in existence to the present day. Among these proprietary clubs may be mentioned Almack's (1764) and Brooks's (1778). About the close of the Napoleonic wars the modern club era began with the organization of the Travellers' Club, 1814, by the Marquis of Londonderry, to-day one of the most exclusive of English clubs. In the U. S. club life owes its origin to the Union Club, founded in New York, 1836. The first club for women in the U. S. was the Sorosis, founded in New York, 1868.

Club'foot, technically known as TALIPES; a deformity, mostly congenital, which usually affects both feet. In the most common form the inner margin of the foot is elevated, the external one depressed, touching the ground; the middle and anterior portions are retarded in their growth, and the joints become immovable. Clubfoot acquired after birth is due to muscular paralysis or bone disease. In mild cases manual stretching of the foot, proper bandaging, and the application of a plaster dressing will suffice. More marked cases require the cutting of one or more tendons and use of appropriate apparatus.

Club Moss'es, or Ground Pines, small plants with a moss-like aspect belonging to club moss and ground pine families. These families, with the modern family Isoetacea, and several which are extinct, constitute a well-marked class of the "fernworts" under the name of Lycopodina, commonly called Lycopods.

Cluny (klü-ne'), town of France; department of Saône-et-Loire; on the Grône, 14 m. NW. of Mâcon. Here are the remains of a

famous Benedictine abbey, founded 910 A.D. Pop. (1901) 3,691.

Clyde (klid), Lord. See CAMPBELL, COLIN.

Clyde, principal river on the W. coast of Scotland; celebrated for the beauty of its scenery; it rises in the Lowther and Moffat Hills; at Lanark descends abt. 350 ft. in 4 m., and reaches the firth of Clyde at Dumbarton. Glasgow may be reached by the largest ocean steamers, and at Dumbarton the river is 1 m. wide; length, 73 m.

Clytemnestra (klit-ěm-něs'tră), wife of Agamemnon, King of Mycena; sister of Castor murdered Agamemnon on and of Helen; the paramour of Ægisthus; his return from Troy. She and Ægisthus were killed by her

son Orestes.

Clytie (kli'tě), name of three mythical personages mentioned by Hesiod, Ovid, Pausanias, and Tzetzes. With Ovid she is a nymph loved by Apollo, the god of the sun, but who, having offended and being forsaken by him, pined away with her eyes fixed on the sun, and was

COAL

a favorite for open grates. Lignite, or brown coal, may contain only fifty per cent. of carbon, which yields heat, the remainder being the volatile bituminous substances which yield smoke only.

Coal is found in nearly every country on the globe, the largest areas being in China, the U. S., Canada, India, Russia, Japan, Gt. Britain, Germany, and France. The coal-producing area of the U. S. is about 200,000 sq. m., the fields in Pennsylvania, Illinois, W. Virginia, Indiana, Ohio, Alabama, and Colorado being especially extensive. The anthracite coal-bearing area of Pennsylvania is estimated at 170,000 sq. m.; the workable area at 470 sq. m. The Appalachian, or E. bituminous field extends from New York to Alabama, a little over 900 m., and has a width of 30-180 m. The thickness of the coal varies from 100 to over 3,000 ft. The coal-bearing area of the NW. Provinces of Canada is estimated at over

65,000 sq. m. The coal fields of England and Wales have an area of 11,859 sq. m., and in two counties the coal-bearing strata are 12,000 ft. thick. In the SE. part of the Province of Szechuan, China, alone, the coal-bearing area is 21,700 sq. m. Germany, Austria, and the U. S. lead in the production of lignite coal. The production of the principal coal fields of the world, 1905, was estimated at 929,622,648 metric tons. The total production of the U. S. was over 300,000,000 short tons, valued at $476,756,963; of this the output of anthracite was 77,659,850 short tons; of bituminous, 315,259,491 short tons. Pennsylvania's output (anthracite and bituminous) had a value of $255,269,507. In 1905 the British Royal Commission issued a report in which the available resources of the proved coal fields were estimated at 100,000,000,000 tons, enough to supply the world's needs for 450 years. The number of coal mines in the U. S. by census report, 1902, was 12,472. The making of coke from coal is a great industry, the output in the U. S., 1905, being 315,259,491 short tons, valued at $334,877,963. Coal was used by the ancients only to a limited extent. It was first regularly mined in England abt. 1180, but was not introduced into London till 1240. The first discovery of coal in the U. S. was by Father Hennepin, near what is now Ottawa, Ill.; the first coal mined was in Pennsylvania, 1813, it sold for $25 a ton; the first regular shipments from the Pennsylvania mines began in 1820. See ANTHRACITE; CANNEL COAL; CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD; COMBUSTION; FUEL.

Coal'fish, English name for pollack, a fish related to the common cod. Name due to dark color of the back, which rubs off. It is found on both sides of the N. Atlantic, and is used for food. The oil from the liver is used to adulterate codliver oil.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

industries. Preeminent among them are benzine, toluene, xylene, phenol or carbolic acid, naphthalene, anthracene, etc. The statement that a thing is "made from coal-tar" should be understood as meaning that the thing itself is generally not contained in the tar but it is made from some one or more of the things obtained from the tar. Coal-tar colors are dyestuffs made from the hydrocarbons prepared from coal tar. Prominent among these are the aniline, the azo colors, the colors from benzidine, etc.

Coast, margin of a land area, limited by the ocean or its gulfs or bays. The character of a coast line depends chiefly on two things: 1. Geological change of level, by which the sea is placed on the slope of the land mass; if by elevation of a smooth sea-bottom the coast line is of simple form; if by depression of a land area the coast line is irregular, the more so the more varied the relief of the submerged land. 2. The time during which the sea has stood at a given level, allowing its waves to cut back headlands into cliffs and form beaches and bars, and permitting rivers to build out deltas, thus simplifying the coast line from its first irregularity. The coast line of Europe is nearly 20,000 m. to an area of 3,816,400 sq. m.; of Africa, 15,000 to 11,600,000; of Asia, 30,000 to 17,310,000. The Atlantic coast line of the U. S. is 23,000 m. long; that of the Pacific coast, exclusive of Alaska, 15,500 m.

Coast'al Plain, one of the physiographic provinces of N. America, comprising a system of lowlands bordering the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico from New York Bay to the State of Vera Cruz in Mexico. It is in general from 50 to 200 m. broad, but extends N. in the valley of the Mississippi as far as the mouth of the Ohio. Topographically it consists of a plain or a series of plains, interrupted at the N. by a great system of estuaries, and everywhere more or less dissected by stream valleys. Geologically it includes Cretaceous, Eocene, Neocene, and Pleistocene formations.

Coast and Geodet'ic Sur'vey, bureau of the U. S. Govt., in the Treasury Department, charged with the survey of the coasts of the U. S., the coasts under the jurisdiction thereof, and the publication of charts, including sailing charts, general charts of the coast, and harbor charts. This includes base measures, triangulation, topography, and hydrography along said coasts; the survey of rivers to the head of tidewater or ship navigation; deep-sea soundings, temperature, and current observations along said coasts and throughout the Gulf and Japan streams; magnetic observations and researches, and the publication of maps showing the variations of terrestrial magnetism; gravity research; determination of heights; the determination of geographic positions, and to furnish reference points for

state surveys.

Tide tables are issued annually, in advance; "Coast Pilots," with sailing directions covering the navigable waters, and "Notices to Mariners" are issued monthly containing current information necessary for