Fig. 2.

Outline of the Kangaroo about twelve hours after birth,

shewing its natural size and external development at this period.

MARTABAN-MARTEN.

order the uterus is double, and the introductory passage more or less (sometimes wholly) separated into two lateral canals. Both the digestive and generative tubes terminate within a common Cloaca (q. v.), and there are various other points in which these animals manifest their affinity to the oviparous vertebrates. The marsupial bones serve important purposes in connection with their generative economy. In the female,' he observes, they assist in producing a compression of the Mammary gland necessary for the alimentation of a peculiarly feeble offspring, and they defend the abdominal viscera from the pressure of the young as these increase in size during their marsupial existence, and still more when they return to the pouch for temporary shelter,' while in the males they are subservient to the reproductive process. The marsupials belong to the aplacental division of the Mammalia (q. v.). The period of their gestation is short (26 days in the Virginian opossum, and 39 days in the kangaroo), and the young are produced in so immature a state, that the earlier observers believed that they were produced like buds from the nipples to which they saw them attached. The appearance presented by a young kangaroo of one of the largest species, within twelve hours of its being deposited in the pouch, is described by Professor Owen (from personal observation in the Zoological Gardens) as follows: 'It resembled an earthworm in the colour and semi-transparency of its integument, adhered firmly to the point of the nipple, breathed strongly but slowly, and moved its fore-legs when disturbed. The body was bent upon the abdomen, its short tail tucked in between the hind-legs, which were one-third shorter than the fore-legs. The whole length from the nose to the end of the tail, when stretched out, did not exceed one inch and two lines.' The mother apparently employs her mouth in placing the young at the nipple, where it remains suspended, involuntarily absorbing milk for a considerable time (probably about two months on an average), after which, it sucks spontaneously for some months. Although able from the first, by the muscular power of its lips, to adhere firmly to the nipple, it does not possess the strength to obtain the milk by the ordinary process of sucking. In the process, it is assisted by the adaptation of a muscle to the mammary gland, which, by con tracting, injects the milk from the nipple into the mouth of the adherent foetus; and to prevent the entrance of milk into the air-passage, the larynx is prolonged upwards to the aperture of the posterior nares, where it is closely embraced by the muscles of the soft palate. The air-passage is thus entirely separated from the throat, and the milk passes on either side of the larynx into the œsophagus.

Professor Owen has proposed that these animals should be divided into five tribes or primary groups, viz., Sarcophaga, Entomophaga, Carpophaga, Poephaga, and Rhizophaga, according to the nature of their food. With the exception of one American and one Malayan genus, all known existing marsupials belong to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea.For further details regarding this order, the reader is referred to Waterhouse's Natural History of the Mammalia, vol. i., and to Owen's article Marsupi alia' in the Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology.

MARTABA'N, the name of a small town, in a province of that name, in British Burmah, on the banks of the river of the same name, and near its mouth in the Gulf of M., in lat. 16° 32′ N., long. 97° 35' E., was the first that fell into the hands of the British in the Burmese war in 1852.

MARTEL, CHARLES. See CHARLES MARTEL.

MARTELLO TOWERS are round towers for

coast defence, about 40 feet high, built most solidly, and situated on the beach. They occur in several places round the coast of the United King dom; but principally opposite to the French coast, along the southern shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many miles, they are within easy range of each other. They were mostly erected during the French war, as a defence against invasion. Each had walls of 5 feet thickness, and was supposed to be bomb-proof. The base formed the magazine; above were two rooms for the garrison, and over the upper of these the flat roof, with a 44-feet brick parapet all round. On this roof a swivel while howitzers on each side were to form a flanking heavy gun was to be placed to command shipping, defence in connection with the neighbouring towers. Although the cost of these little forts was very great, they are generally considered to have been a failure; their armaments have mostly been removed, and their garrisons of six to twelve pensioner-soldiers replaced by coast-guard men, or in some cases by old master-gunners.

The name is said to be taken from Italian towers

built near the sea, during the period when piracy was common in the Mediterranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giving warning if a pirateship was seen approaching. This warning was given by striking on a bell with a hammer (Ital. martello), and hence these towers were called Torri da Martello.

MARTEN (Martes), a genus of digitigrade carnivorous quadrupeds of the family Mustelida, differing from weasels in having an additional false molar on each side above and below, a small tubercle on the inner side of the lower carnivorous cheek-teeth, and the tongue not rough-characters which are regarded as indicating a somewhat less extreme carnivorous propensity. The body is elongated and supple, as in weasels, the legs short, and the toes separate, with sharp long claws. The ears are larger than in weasels, and the tail is bushy. The martens exhibit great agility and gracefulness in their movements, and are very expert in climbing trees, among which they generally live. Two species are natives of Britain, the COMMON M., BEECH M., or STONE M. (M. foina), and the PINE M. (M. abietum), inhabiting chiefly the more rocky and wooded parts of the island; the former in the south, and the latter in the north. Both were once much more common than they now are, being sought after on account of their fur, and killed on every opportunity, because of their excessive depredations among game and in poultry-yards. The head and body are about 18 inches long, the tail nearly 10 inches. Both species are of a dark tawny colour, the Common M. having a white throat, and the Pine M. a yellow throat. Many naturalists regard them as varieties of one species, of which also they reckon the Sable (q. v.) to be another variety. The fur of the martens is of two sorts: an inner fur, short, soft, and copious, and long outer hair, from which the whole fur derives its colour. The Common M. is much less valuable for its fur than the Pine M., whilst the Pine M. is much less valuable than the sable; but skins of the Common M. are imported in great numbers from the north of Europe, and they are often dyed, and sold as an inferior kind of sable.

MARTHA'S VINEYARD-MARTIAL LAW.

1, Common Marten (Martes foina); 2, Pine Marten in their penalties, as well as more prompt in their

MARTIGNY-MARTINEAU.

MARTIGNY, or MARTINACH (the Octodurus of the Romans), a small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Valais, is situated on the Drance, an affluent of the Rhone, about 24 miles south-southeast from the east end of the Lake of Geneva. The two noted routes, one to the vale of Chamouni by the Tête Noire or the Col de Balme, and another to the Great St Bernard, branch off here. M. is on the Simplon road into Italy. It is a great resort for tourists, and has a population of about 1200. MARTIGUES, a small town of France, in the department of Bouches du Rhone, is situated on three islands, united by bridges, in the entrance to the Etang de Berre, 16 miles north-west of Marseille. From the peculiarity of its position, it has been called the Provençal Venice. Pop. 8500, who are engaged in the tunny and pilchard fisheries. MARTIN. See SWALLOW.

preceded him. He died at Perugia in 1285.—MARTIN V. must be noticed as the pontiff in whose election was finally extinguished the great WESTERN SCHISM (q. v.). He was originally named Otho Colonna, of the great Roman family of that name. On the deposition of John XXIII., and the two rival popes Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII., in the council of Constance, Cardinal Colonna was elected. He presided in all the subsequent sessions of the council, and the Fathers having separated without discussing the questions of reform, at that period earnestly called for in the church, Martin undertook to call a new council for the purpose. The council was summoned accordingly, after several years, to meet at Siena, and ultimately assembled at Basel in 1431. Martin died in the same year.

MARTIN, JOHN, an English painter, was born in the neighbourhood of Hexham, Northumberland, 19th July 1789, went to London in 1806, and-after some years spent in obscure struggles-made his first appearance as an exhibiter at the Royal Academy in 1812. His picture was entitled 'Sadak in Search of the Waters of Oblivion,' and attracted much notice. It was followed within two years by the 'Expulsion from Paradise,' 'Clytée,' and 'Joshua commanding the Sun to stand Still.' The last of these works was a great success in point of popu larity, but it was also the cause of a quarrel between M. and the Academy, in consequence of which he never obtained any distinction from the society. From this period till nearly the close of his life, he incessantly painted pictures in a style which was considered sublime,' by the same sort of people who thought Montgomery's Satan and Pollok's Course of Time equal to Paradise Lost. The principal of these sublime' productions are 'Belshazzar's Feast' (1821); 'Creation' (1824); 'The Deluge' (1826); The Fall of Nineveh' (1828); Pandemonium' (1841); Morning' and 'Evening' (1844); The Last Man' (1850). M. died at Douglas, Isle of Man, February 9, 1854.

MARTIN, Bishop of Tours, and a saint of the Roman Catholic Church, was born in Pannonia about the year 316. He was educated at Pavia, and at the desire of his father, who was a military tribune, entered the army, first under Constantine, and afterwards under Julian the Apostate. The virtues of his life as a soldier are the theme of more than one interesting legend. On obtaining his discharge from military service, M. became a disciple of Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers (q. v.). He returned to his native Pannonia, and converted his mother to Christianity, but he himself endured much persecution from the Arian party, who were at that time dominant; and in consequence of the firmness of his profession of orthodoxy, he is the first who, without suffering death for the truth, has been honoured in the Latin Church as a confessor of the faith. On his return to Gaul, about 360, he founded a convent of monks near Poitiers, where he himself led a life of great austerity and seclusion; but in 371 he was drawn by force from his retreat, and ordained Bishop of Tours. The fame of his sanctity, and his repute as a worker of miracles, attracted crowds of visit. MARTIN, ST, one of the Lesser Antilles, lies in ants from all parts of Gaul; and in order to avoid 18° 4' N. lat., and 63° 8' W. long. Area about the distraction of their importunity, he established 30 square miles. The northern part of St M. a monastery near Tours, in which he himself resided. belongs to France, and the southern to the NetherHis life by his contemporary, Sulpicius Severus, lands. It is mountainous in the interior, indented is a very curious specimen of the Christian litera- with bays, and is about four square leagues in ture of the age, and in the profusion of miraculous extent. There are salt marshes from which much legends with which it abounds, might take its salt is made; and sugar-canes, cotton, tobacco, place among the lives of the medieval or modern maize, plantains, bananas, and other West India Roman Church. The only extant literary relic of M. is a short Confession of Faith on the Holy Pan produced 301,234 vats of salt, valued at In 1860, the Great Salt products are cultivated. Trinity, which is published by Galland, vol. vii. 559. £15,060 sterling. Population of the French part In the Roman Catholic Church, the festival of his of the island about 3450; of the Netherlands part, birth is celebrated on the 11th November. In Scot-3157. The law for emancipating the slaves in the land, this day still marks the winter-term, which is called Martinmas (the mass of St Martin). For

merly, people used to begin St Martin's Day with feasting and drinking; hence the French expressions martiner and faire la St Martin, ‘to feast.'

MARTIN, the name of five popes, of whom the fourth and fifth deserve a brief notice. MARTIN IV. (Nicholas de la Brie), a Frenchman, was elected in 1281. His name is best known in connection with the memorable tragedy of the Sicilian Vespers.' Having been from the time of his election a devoted adherent of Charles of Anjou, he supported that monarch with all his influence, and even by the spiritual censures which he had at his command, in his effort to maintain French domination in Sicily; and it is to his use of the censures of the church in that cause that many Catholic historians ascribe the decline and ultimate extinction of the authority in temporals which the papacy had exercised under the distinguished pontiffs who

Netherland West Indies, which passed the Statesgeneral August 1862, came into operation July 1863.

MARTI'NA, a fine town of the Neapolitan province Terra di Otranto, situated on a hill 18 miles north-north-east of Taranto. Pop. 14,500. It is a rising industrious place, and has a fine palace of similar architecture to the great Roman palace

Panfili.

MARTINEAU, HARRIET, an English authoress, was born at Norwich 12th June 1802. Her educa tion was conducted for the most part at home; from an early age she was a lover of books, and was wont to amuse her solitary hours by committing her thoughts to paper. Her father's affairs becoming embarrassed, she was compelled to procure her own livelihood; in the first instance, it is said, as a teacher of music, which profession she was compelled to relinquish from deafness, when she began to turn her attention to literature. If this be so,

MARTINEAU-MARTLET.

it affords a remarkable example of the good gifts
which necessity, the hard mother, has sometimes in
store for her children. Had this lady remained in
affluence, or unvisited by physical affliction, it is
probable that England would have been without,
if not its greatest, certainly its most remarkable
female writer. The subjects upon which her pen
has been exercised are of the most varied kind,
including some-such as politics-which have rarely
been before attempted by women. Her first volume,
entitled Devotions for Young People, appeared in
1823; and was followed in 1824 by Christmas Day,
a tale, and by The Friend, a sequel, the year
after. In 1826, she published Principle and Prac-
tice, and The Rioters; and for two years thereafter
she was busily engaged writing stories and a
series of tracts on social matters, adapted mainly
for the perusal of the working-classes. In 1830,
she produced her Traditions of Palestine. During
the same year, the Association of Unitarian Dis-
senters awarded her prizes for essays on the
following subjects: The Faith as unfolded by
many Prophets, Providence as Manifested through
Israel, and The Essential Faith of the Universal
Church. Her next important literary venture was
unique, and in one of the softer sex almost
audacious, The Illustrations of Political Economy, a
series of tales, which met with great and deserved
success, and was followed by others illustrative
of Taxation, and Poor-law and Paupers. In 1835,
she crossed the Atlantic, and published her Society
in America in 1837. In 1839, she published Deer-
brook, which was followed by The Hour and the
Man. She afterwards produced a series of tales
for the young, the best known of which are
Feats on the Fiord, and The Crofton Boys. About
1839, and on till 1844, she was an invalid more
or less, and during this period she wrote Life in
the Sick-room. On her recovery she published
Forest and Game-law Tales. In 1846, she visited
Palestine, and collected materials for Eastern Life,
Past and Present, which she published on her
return. Afterwards, she completed Mr Knight's
History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace
-her best and most useful work, perhaps, on the
whole. In 1851, in conjunction with Mr H. G.
Atkinson, she published a series of Letters on the
Laws of Man's Social Nature and Development,
convulsing the literary coteries with the boldness
of her speculations. The long catalogue of her
literary labours may be closed by her translation of
Comte's Positive Philosophy. While the foregoing
works were in progress, M. was a constant con-
tributor to the farger reviews, and the daily and
weekly press. At present, she resides at Amble-
side, writing when her state of health permits.
MARTINEAU, JAMES, brother of the
ceding, was born in Norwich about 1807.
was educated for the ministry in connection with
the Unitarian body of Christians, and was pastor
of congregations in Dublin and Liverpool. He
has been for many years Professor of Mental and
Moral Philosophy in Manchester New College; and
that institution having been removed to London, he
resigned his pastoral charge in Liverpool in 1858,
and transferred his residence to the metropolis,
where he became joint-pastor of the Unitarian
Church of Little Portland Street. He is under-
stood to have been one of the projectors of the
National Review, and has been a frequent contri-
butor to its pages. This periodical may be taken as
generally representing his theological views. M. is
one of the most earnest and lofty of living religious
writers. He is deeply read in German theology
and philosophy, and is remarkable for strong
grasp of thought and power of subtle analysis. He

He

is a master of English style, and in the power of
giving form and substance to the most abstract
thought, has seldom been surpassed.
His prin-
cipal works are the Rationale of Religious Inquiry
(1836), Endeavours after the Christian Life (1843),
Miscellanies (1852), and Studies of Christianity
(1858).

to that nation.

the natives MADIANA, one of the Lesser Antilles, is
MARTINIQUE, or MARTINICO, called by
40 miles long, about 12 miles broad, and has an area
of about 380 square miles, and 137,455 inhabit-
ants, of whom upwards of 87,000 are black. The
island was discovered by the Spaniards in 1493,
colonised by the French in 1635, and now belongs
indented coasts, and is everywhere mountainous;
It is of an oval form, with much
the highest peak, Mount Pelée, being considerably
extinct volcanoes on the island, one of them with an
more than 4000 feet above sea-level. There are six
enormous crater. The cultivated portion of M. (about
The climate is moist, but, except during the rainy
one-third of the whole) lies chiefly along the coast.
season, is not unhealthy, and the soil is very
productive. Of the land in cultivation, about three-
ment of the island consists of a governor, a privy
fifths are occupied with sugar-cane.
The govern-
council of 7, and a colonial council of 30 members.
Slavery was abolished in 1848. The island is liable
but St Pierre (q. v.) is the largest town and the
to dreadful hurricanes. The capital is Fort Royal,
seat of commerce. Macouba, on the north coast, is
famous for a particular kind of snuff.

MARTINMAS, in Scotland, is one of the four quarter-days for paying rent-viz., 11th November.

MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON, one of the most distinguished of modern travellers and naturalists, born at Erlangen 1794. He studied medicine at Erlangen, and had published two botanical works, when he was induced to proceed to Brazil as a member of a scientific expedition sent out by the Austrian and Bavarian governments, and by his researches in that country acquired a reputa tion inferior perhaps to that of no scientific traveller except Humboldt. He was specially intrusted with the botanical department, but his researches extended to ethnography, statistics, geography, and natural science in general; and his works published after his return exhibit a poet's love of nature and great powers of description. These works are: Reise nach Brasilien (3 vols. Munich, 1824-1831); Nova Genera et Species Plantarum (3 vols. Munich, 1824

1832); and Icones Plantarum Cryptogamicarum (Munich, 1828-1834). He also published a most valuable monograph of palms, Genera et Species pre-author of a number of other botanical works, some Palmarum (3 vols. Munich, 1823-1845). He is the also of works relative to tropical America, as of which are monographs of orders and genera; Die Pflanzen und Thiere des tropischen Amerika das Arztthum und die Heilmittel der Urbewohner (Munich, 1831); Das Naturell, die Krankheiten, Brasiliens (Munich, 1843); Systema Materia Medica He has contributed largely to the Vegetabilis Brasiliensis (Leip. 1843). Flora Brasiliensis (Stuttgart, 1829, &c.); and has written on the Potato Disease (Munich, 1842), &c., &c. Director of the Botanic Garden at He is Professor of Botany and

MARTOS-MARY.

fourth son. It is also otherwise used as a charge. The martlet was originally meant for the martin, and in the earliest heraldry, it is not deprived of its feet.

MA'RTOS, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 16 miles south-west of the city of Jaen, on a steep hill crowned by an old castle. It is resorted to for its mineral waters. Pop. stated at 11,000.

anity, called the proto-martyr,' was the deacon Stephen, whose death is recorded Acts vi. and vii. The proto-martyr of Britain was Alban of Verulam, who suffered under Diocletian in 286 or 303.

MARTYRO'LOGY, a calendar of martyrs and other saints arranged in the order of months and days, and intended partly to be read in the public services of the church, partly for the guidance of the devotion of the faithful towards the saints and martyrs. The use of the martyrology is common both to the Latin and to the Greek Church, in the latter of which it is called Menologion (from Mēn, a month), or month-calendar.' The earliest extant Greek martyrology or menology dates from the 9th century. It was published in 1727 by Cardinal Urbini. The oldest Latin martyrology is that attributed to St Jerome, published in the 11th volume of the collected edition of his works by Vallars; but the genuineness at least of some portions of it is more than doubtful. In the medieval period, martyrologies were issued in England by Venerable Bede; in France by Florus, Ado, and Usuard; and in Germany by St Gall, Nolter, and Rabanus Maurus. The so-called 'Roman MartyrTheology' is designed for the entire church, and was published by authority of Gregory XIII., with a critical commentary by the celebrated Cardinal Baronius in 1586. A still more critical edition was issued by the learned Jesuit, Herebert Rosweid.

MARUT is, in Hindu Mythology, the god of wind; his wife is Anjana, and his son Hanumân (q. v.). Bhima, the second of the Pân'd'u princes (see MAHABHARATA), is likewise considered as an offspring of this god."

MARVEL OF PERU. See JALAP.

MARTYR (Gr. martyr, a witness), the name given in ecclesiastical history to those who, by their fearless profession of Christian truth, and especially by their fortitude in submitting to death itself rather than abandon their faith, bore the witness' of their blood to its superhuman origin. Of the same use of the word, there are some examples also in the New Testament, as in Acts xxii. 20, Apoc. ii. 13, and xvii. 6. But this meaning, as its technical and established signification, is derived mainly from ecclesiastical writers. During the Persecutions (q. v) of the Christians in the first three centuries, contemporary writers, as well pagan as Christian, record that many Christians preferring death to apostasy, became martyrs or witnesses in blood to the faith, often in circumstances of the utmost heroism. courage and constancy of the sufferers won the highest admiration from the brethren. It was held a special privilege to receive the martyr's benedic tion, to kiss his chains, to visit him in prison, or to converse with him; and, as it was held that their great and superabundant merit might, in the eyes of the church, compensate for the laxity and weakness of less perfect brethren, a practice arose by which the martyrs gave to those sinners who were undergoing a course of public penance, letters of commendation to their bishop, in order that their course of penance might be shortened or suspended MARVELL, ANDREW, an English writer and altogether. See INDULGENCE. The day of martyr-politician, was born 15th November 1620 at Hull, dom, moreover, as being held to be the day of the in Yorkshire, where his father was master of the martyrs' entering into eternal life, was called the grammar-school and lecturer of Trinity Church. 'natal' or 'birth' day, and as such was cele. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and afterbrated with peculiar honour, and with special reli- wards spent several years in various parts of tho gious services. Their bodies, clothes, books, and continent, 'to very good purpose,' according to the other objects which they had possessed were Milton. He returned to England about 1653, and honoured as RELICS (q. v.), and their tombs were was employed by Oliver Cromwell as tutor to a Mr visited for the purpose of asking their interces- Dutton; in 1657, he became assistant-secretary to sion. See INVOCATION. The number of martyrs Milton; and in 1660, was chosen by his native town who suffered death during the first ages of Christi- to represent it in parliament. M.'s parliamentary anity has been a subject of great controversy. career was both singular and honourable. Without The ecclesiastical writers, with the natural pride fortune or influence, possessing no commanding of partisanship, have, it can hardly be doubted, talent as a speaker, nor, indeed, brilliant intellectual leaned to the side of exaggeration. Some of their qualities of any kind, he maintained a character for statements are palpably excessive; and Gibbon, integrity, so genuine and high that his constituency in his well-known 16th chapter, throws great doubt felt itself honoured by his conduct, and allowed him even on the most moderate of the computations to the end of his life a handsome pension.' Other of the church historians. But it is clearly though wise, it would have occasionally fared ill with this briefly shewn by Guizot in his notes on this incorruptible patriot, for he was often reduced to celebrated chapter (see Milman's Gibbon's Decline great pecuniary straits. Charles II. made many but and Fall, i. 598), that Gibbon's criticisms are fruitless efforts to win him over to the court-party. founded on unfair and partial data, and that even The story of the interview between M. and the the very authorities on which he relies demon- Lord Treasurer Danby, who had found out the strate the fallaciousness of his conclusions. Those patriot's lodgings (with difficulty) up two pair of who are interested in the subject will find it stairs, in one of the little courts in the Strand,' is discussed with much learning and considerable believed to be essentially true, and indicates a moderation in Ruinart's Acta Primitiva et Sincera certain noble republican simplicity of nature, which M. died 16th Martyrum. Considerable difference of opinion also cannot be too highly admired. has existed as to what, in the exploration of the August 1678, not without suspicion of poison. His ancient Christian tombs in the Roman catacombs, writings, partly in verse, and partly in prose, are are to be considered as signs of martyrdom. The satirical, sharp, honest, and pithy (like his talk), but chief signs, in the opinion of older critics, were they relate to matters of temporary interest, and are (1), the letters B. M.; (2), the figure of a palm- now well-nigh forgotten. An edition of them was tree; and (3), a phial with the remains of a red published, along with a life of the author, by Captain liquor believed to be blood. Each of these has Edward Thompson, London, 1776. in turn been the subject of dispute, but the last MARY, THE BLESSED VIRGIN (Heb. Miriam, Gr. is commonly regarded as the conclusive sign of Maria or Mariam), called in the New Testament martyrdom. The first recorded martyr of Christi-the mother of Jesus' (Matt. ii. 11, Acts i. 14), as the