her dominions, to declare war against France. A considerable English force, accordingly, joined the army under Philibert, duke of Savoy, and the count of Egmont, which was besieging St. Quentin. The French, under Montmorency, were entirely defeated, August 10, 1557. Philip, who, during the battle, was occupied in prayer, joined the army after it was over. (See Escurial.) Instead of taking advantage of this victory to march to Paris, Philip was satisfied with occupying St. Quentin, Ham and Chatelet, and, soon after, under the impulse of superstitious fears, concluded a disadvantageous peace with the pope. On the death of Mary (1558), which was hastened by the neglect of her husband and the loss of Calais, Philip sued for the hand of Elizabeth, who was too well acquainted with his temper and the aversion of her subjects against him, to listen to his addresses. The peace of Cambray (1559), finally terminated the long struggle of the French and Spanish monarchies, under conditions favorable to the latter. The marriage of Philip with the daughter of Henry II, king of France, who had been previously designed for don Charles, son of Philip, was stipulated by one of the articles of this peace. In the course of the year, Philip returned to Spain, leaving the government of the Low Countries in the hands of his natural sister, Margaret, duchess of Parma. His arrival was celebrated by the inquisition, with an auto da fé, and his reverential conduct during the burning of his subjects is highly praised by the Spanish writers. Soon after this, the troubles in the Low Countries broke out. (See Netherlands, and Granvella.) Philip established the inquisition there for the suppression of heresy, and refused to mitigate its rigors, declaring that it was better to be without subjects than to be the ruler of heretics. The blood thirsty Alva (q. v.) was sent (1567) to execute the cruel policy of the Spanish court. The counts of Egmont (q. v.) and Hoorn, with a great number of less distinguished sufferers, perished on the scaffold. Philip remained a cold and unmoved spectator of the horrors caused by his own rigorous policy. At the same period, a tragic event in his family tended to strengthen the gloom of his character. His son, don Carlos (q. v.) died in prison (1568), where he had been thrown on a charge of treason, and two months after, died Elizabeth, the beautiful and virtuous wife of Philip. The beautiful Anna de Mendoza, the wife of his favorite and minister Ruy Gomez de Silva, was at this time his mistress. An insurrection of the Moors in Granada was quelled in 1570, and Philip married the archduchess Anne of Austria, his fourth wife. In the following year, his fleet assisted at the battle of Lepanto (q. v.), gained by don John of Austria over the Turks. The duke of Alva was recalled from the Netherlands in 1573. His successor, Requesens, died in 1576, and was followed by don John of Austria, who was empowered to make some concessions; but, soon after his death (1578), the union of Utrecht was formed (January 23, 1579). The Belgic Netherlands, however, were reduced by the prince Alexander Farnese, who next commanded the Spanish forces in that quarter. The throne of Portugal, having become vacant by the death of Sebastian, was claimed by Philip, who sent the duke of Alva to take possession of that kingdom. Philip himself soon followed him thither (1581), and received the homage of the Portuguese estates. The assassination of William (q. v.), prince of Orange, in 1584, was received with the most indecent expressions of joy at the Spanish court, but William's son, Maurice (q. v.), was a still more formidable enemy. A rupture with England (see Elizabeth) soon followed, and the Armada was fitted out for the conquest of that kingdom. (See Armada.) When the duke of Medina Sidonia, who had the command of the expedition, appeared before Philip with the information of its destruction, the king thanked him, because he had not despaired of his country. "The will of God be done," he added, coldly; "I sent my ships to fight with the English, not with the elements." This event was a death-blow to the Spanish monarchy. Philip sent assistance to the leaguers in France (see League), 'and commanded the duke of Parina to invade the kingdom. Even after Henry IV's conversion to the Catholic faith, he continued his hostility to that prince, who, in consequence, declared war against him. The war with England was meanwhile continued, and Spain not only suffered much by losses in her American colonies, but was compelled to witness the capture of Cadiz and the destruction of the shipping in that port by Howard (q. v.) and the earl of Essex. (See Devereux.) Prince Maurice of Nassau had also gained the ascendency in the Low Countries, and seven of the provinces had declared themselves independent. Re verses and disease, at length, broke Philip's spirit; he became desirous of restoring tranquillity to his dominions, and con cluded the treaty of Vervins with France. He died the next year, Sept. 13, 1598. The gout, dropsy, and a violent fever, had afflicted him the two last years of his life; but he retained his senses and his activity to the last. Sores on his breast and knees, the consequence of his early debaucheries, disturbed his last days, and from their corrupt matter issued swarms of lice, which the physicians were unable to destroy. He bore his sufferings with great firmness, and punctiliously observed all the rites of the Catholic church. Philip was a prince of considerable capacity, and he entered with facility into the details of affairs. His pomp, generosity, activity, and just administration, when it did not interfere with his own private plans, made a strong impression on the minds of men; but his boundless ambition, his severity and his gloomy superstition made his reign a period of war and of bad passions, and exhausted the immense resources of his empire. Among his instruments was poison, which he familiarly called his requiescat in pace (rest in peace). With his reign began the decline of the Spanish monarchy. His Life by Campana is a panegyric on his character. Different views will be found in the History of the Reign of Philip II, by Watson, and in Dumesnil's Histoire de Philippe II (1 vol., 8vo., Paris, 1822). (See Spain.) (See Spain.) (See Spain.) PHILIP III of Spain. PHILIP IV of Spain. PHILIP V of Spain. PHILIP II, Augustus, king of France, born 1165, ascended the throne on the death of his father, Louis VII, 1180. One of his first measures was the banishment of the Jews from the kingdom, and the confiscation of their property. This was done under pretence of their being guilty of various crimes; but the real purpose of the measure was to get possession of their wealth. Philip next endeavored to repress the tyranny and rapacity of the nobles, which he effected partly by art, and partly by force. In 1190, he embarked at Genoa on a crusade to the Holy Land, where he met Richard Coeur-de-Lion (see Richard I), who was engaged in the same cause in Sicily. (See Crusades.) The jealousies and disputes which divided the two kings induced Philip to return home the next year; and he took advantage of Richard's imprisonment in Austria to seize some of the English fiefs in Normandy. (See John.) This enterprise was in direct violation of the oath PHILIP IV of France. ans.) (See France) (See France, (See Burgund PHILIP THE GOOD. (See Burgund ans.) PHILIP, KING, sachem of Pokanoket was the youngest son of Massasoit, an succeeded his brother Alexander in 1657 In 1662, he renewed the friendship which had subsisted with the English, and engaged not to dispose of any lands without their knowledge or appointment. In 1673 however, he commenced a desolating war. in order to arrest the progress of th whites, foreseeing, as he did, the loss of his territory, and the extinction of his tribe, in the increase of their settlements After prosecuting hostilities with great en Agnes de Méran died of grief, at Poissy in 1201, the year in which she was repudiate The pope legitimated her two children by Phir as she was authorized to consider the king fre when she married him. ergy and heroism, and inflicting considerable mischief, he was killed in a swamp, August 12, 1676, when endeavoring to escape from captain Church. PHILIPPI; a town on the borders of Thrace and Macedonia, where two battles were fought (B. C. 42) between the repubicans under Brutus and Cassius, and the riends of Antony and Octavius, in which he former were defeated. (See Antonius, and Brutus.) The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians was written to the church which that apostle founded at Philippi. PHILIPPICS; the orations of Demoshenes against Philip king of Macedon. See Demosthenes.) Cicero applied this name to his invectives against Antony, and it has hence come to signify an invective in general. PHILIPPINES; a group of islands in the Pacific ocean, 1200 in number (lat. 4° 22′ N., lon. 116-128° E.), extending about 150 leagues from north to south, and about 280 in its greatest breadth. The principal islands are Luçon (q. v.), Mindanao (q. v.), Palaouan, Mindoro, &c. The capital of the Spanish possessions is Manilla. (q. v.) The population of the group is estimated at about two and a half millions, of whom 7000 are Chinese, 4000 whites (Spaniards), 118,000 mestizos, and the rest natives. Of the latter there are two distinct races, the Papuas, or negroes, who live principally in the interior, and seem to have been the primitive inhabitants, and the Malays, who dwell nearer the coasts. (See Malays.) The Philippines were discovered, in 1521, by Magellan (q.v.), and received their present name in honor of Philip II king of Spain. The first settlements were made by the Spaniards in 1570. In 1823, the creoles and mestizos made an attempt to obtain a liberal government, but the insurrection was put down by the Spaniards, who employed in this service a force formed of the converted natives. The face of the country is mountainous, and there are numerous volcanoes in the different islands, whose eruptions have repeatedly caused great ravages. The climate is various, but the heat is never excessive. Violent rains, hurricanes and earthquakes often do much mischief. The soil is not less various, but, in general, is fertile. Rice, coffee, sugar, cocoas, tobacco, indigo, and a great variety of pulse, with many sorts of tropical fruits, ebony, sandal wood, dye woods, &c., are among the vegetable productions. Gold, silver and sulphur are among the minerals. The domestic animals of Europe thrive here. The trade of these islands is principally with the Chinese and English. See Aragon's Descripcion de la Isla de Luzon (Manilla, 1820). PHILIPPONES; a Russian sect, a branch of the Roskolnicians, so called from their founder, Philip Pustoswiat. The sect took its rise in the northern part of Russia towards the end of the seventeenth century, and neither acknowledges the pope, nor esteems consecration by the Russian church as valid. They differed from the other Roskolnicians chiefly in having no ordained clergy. Communion, confirmation, absolution, and marriage by ecclesiastics, were not, therefore, practised among them. (See Greek Church, and Roskolnicians.) In each of their societies is an elder (starik), chosen by themselves or by his predecessor, who can read Sclavonic, and is obliged, after his baptism, to abstain from strong drinks. He performs the different clerical offices. Absolution, they consider, must be received immediately from God. They scruple to take an oath, or to perform military service. Many Philippones fled, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, into Polish Lithuania, whence some of them passed into the Prussian territories. PHILIPS, Ambrose, a poet and dramatic writer, was a native of Leicestershire, and studied at Cambridge. On quitting the university he went to London, and became one of the literary wits who frequented Button's coffee-house, and a friend of Steele and Addison. The publication of his Pastorals involved him in a war with Pope, who ridiculed them in the Guardian; in consequence of which Philips threatened to inflict personal correction on the satirist. He was one of the writers of a periodical paper, called the Freethinker; and doctor Boulton, the conductor, obtaining preferment in Ireland, Philips was made registrar of the prerogative court at Dublin. He returned to England in 1748, and died the next year. He was the author of the Distrest Mother, a tragedy (1712), taken from Racine; the Briton (1722), and Humphey, Duke of Gloucester (1723); and he wrote the Life of Archbishop' Williams. (See Johnson's Lives of the Poets.) PHILIPS, John, an English poet, born in Oxfordshire, 1676, was educated at Christchurch, Oxford, where he produced the Splendid Shilling, in which the sonorous cadence of the blank verse of Milton is adapted to familiar and ludicrous topics. He also wrote Blenheim, a poem, in celebration of the duke of Marlborough's victory; but his principal work is Ĉyder, a Georgical work, in imitation of Virgil. He died in 1708. (See Johnson's Lives of the Poets.) PHILISTINES; apparently an Egyptian tribe, from whom Palestine, before called Canaan, received its name. They dwelt in the southern plains of that country, along the coasts of the Mediterranean. They were constantly at war with the Israelites, whom they reduced to subjection at one period, after the death of Joshua. In the German universities, the students give the name of Philistines to persons not members of the universities. PHILO; a learned Jewish author, who flourished in the first century of the Christian era, in the reign of the emperor Caligula. He was born some years before Christ, in Alexandria, where he was educated, and distinguished himself by his proficiency in eloquence, philosophy, and a knowledge of the sacred writings. With the writings of Plato, whose philosophy was at that time in the highest repute in Alexandria, he made himself intimately acquainted, and he adopted his doctrines so completely, that it was said of him, Philo platonizes. From the time of the Ptolemies the Jews had borrowed the use of allegories from their Egyptian neighbors, and thus imbibed Platonic and Pythagorean doctrines, which they treated as the hidden and symbolical sense of their own law. Thus, without having the appearance of being indebted to the heathen philosophers, they could make an arbitrary use of their systems. These systems were likewise mixed with various Oriental theories, in particular respecting the nature of God. Philo zealously studied this philosophy, then so popular in Alexandria; and either because he did not sufficiently understand the Jewish doctrines, or because he was not satisfied with the literal sense of the Mosaic law, he mingled Platonic dogmas with the holy scriptures, and ascribed them to Moses. Probably he followed the example of the Essenes and Therapeuta, of whom he always spoke with great esteem, though he did not adopt their mode of life. He considered God and matter as coeternal principles; God as the primitive light, from whose rays all finite intelligences proceed. The understanding or wisdom of God (oyos), he called also the Son of God, his image, according to which God, by his creative power, produced the material world. He founds our knowledge of God upon intuition. On account of these doctrines, Bouterwek considers him as one of the first Alexandrian New Platonists. Philo perfected himself also in eloquence, and acquired a knowledge of public affairs, in which his fame was so great that he was sent by his countrymen, in the year 42, at the head of an embassy to Rome, to defend the Jews against the calumnious accusations of Apion and others. Caligula would not admit the embassy into his presence, and Philo was even in danger of losing his life. He composed, in consequence, a written justification of the Jews, evincing great learning and skill. The accounts are unworthy of belief, which state that Philo went afterwards to Rome under Claudius, that he became there the friend of the apostle Peter, and embraced the Christian faith, but renounced it again on account of some mortifications which he met with. Those writings of Philo, which have come down to us, are published in the last and most complete edition by Manzey (London, 1742, 2 vols., folio); after him, by Pfeiffer (Erlangen, 1785 and the following years, 5 vols.). They show that Philo was a man of great learning and industry, who was well acquainted with Greek philosophy and literature, and are very useful for those who would learn the state of philosophy at that time in Alexandria. PHILO OF BIBLOS; a grammarian, who lived under Nero and the following emperors till the time of Adrian. He translated Sanchoniathon's Phoenician History into Greek, of which we still possess some fragments. PHILO OF BYZANTIUM, who lived in the second and third centuries, is mentioned as the author of a work on military engines, on the Seven Wonders of the World, &c. Besides these, there are an academic and a stoic philosopher of this name. PHILOCTETES; a Grecian hero, son of Pœan and Demonassa, celebrated for his skill in archery. He led the warriors of Methone, Thaumacia, Melibœa, and Olizon in the expedition against Troy; but, having been bitten in his foot, while he was offering sacrifice in the island of Chrysa, by a serpent which guarded the temple, he became, by the mortification of his wound, so offensive that he was sent back to Lemnos, and there dragged out nine miserable years in lamentations. But, according to the prophecy of Helenus, Troy could not be taken without the arrows of Hercules, and these were in possession of Philoctetes, to whom the hero had given them, when he ascended his funeral pile. It therefore became necessary for the Grecians before Troy to recall Philoc tetes. Ulysses, who had advised his exile, with Pyrrhus (according to some, Diomedes) undertook the embassy; the latter, by promising to heal his wound, prevailed upon him to return to Troy. He was cured by Machaon (or Æsculapius), and after many Trojans, among whom was Paris, had fallen by his arrows, the city was taken. The history of Philoctetes forms the subject of one of the tragedies of Sophocles. PHILOLOGY.* This word, among the ancients, had a signification which included what we now call philosophy, literature, the sciences, and the theory of arts, though it excluded their practice. Thus poetry and rhetoric, considered as sciences, came within the description of philology; but philologists were not expected to be orators or poets. Cicero calls his philosophical works pidodoywrepa, as opposed to his orations; the former being written in a didactic or argumentative, the latter in a more elegant or artificial style. (Ad Att., xiii, 12.) We are informed by Suetonius (De illustr. Gram., c. 10) that Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the first among the Greeks who assumed the name of Moyos. He was a man of unbounded erudition, a physician, philosopher, geographer, grammarian, historian and poet, though we are told that he excelled in none of these branches. (Moreri.) Before his time, a philologer or philologist for both words are used in the English language was called yoapparikòs, which did not mean a grammarian in the present acceptation of the word, but a man of letters; in which sense literary men were first called at Rome literati, and afterwards, when Greek terminology became fashionable, grammatici and philologi. Philology, then, included in ancient times, with few exceptions, every thing that could be learned (omne scibile). In those days, however, science was circumscribed within much narrower bounds than it is at present. The numerous branches which compose what is now called natural science, were very imperfectly known. The same may be said of geography, astronomy and natural philosophy. All that was known of those sciences, with grammar, rhetoric, scholastic logic, metaphysics and elementary mathematics, formed an aggregate which obtained the name of phiLology, until long after the destruction of This article comes from the same learned source with that on Language, and forms a whole with it. The interest of the subject, and the originality of the author's views, are the reason of the space allowed it.-ED the Roman empire; and that is the sense in which this word is understood in many, if not most of the colleges and universities of Europe, always with reference to ancient, and not to modern learning; hence criticism, as applied to the Greek and Roman writers, and the knowledge of ancient coins and medals, and other recondite antiquities, are considered as important branches of philology, and those which chiefly entitle their followers to the name of philologists. This opinion was general as late as the seventeenth century. At that time the Bentleys, the Scaligers, the Saumaises, were the philologists par excellence. The dictionary of the French academy defines philology érudition qui embrasse diverses parties des belles-lettres, et principalement la critique. A century afterwards Johnson defined it criticism, grammatical learning. But of late, the word philology has received a more definite and more appropriate meaning; and it seems now, by a tacit, but almost universal consent, to be chiefly, if not exclusively, appropriated to that science which embraces human language in its widest extent, analyzes and compares its component parts and its various structures in thousands of idioms and dialects,that are and have been spoken on the face of the habitable globe, and from the whole seeks to draw inferences that may lead to a clearer and more extensive knowledge than we have hitherto possessed of the history of our species, and particularly of the migrations of different nations, their connexion and intercourse with each other; for language, though perishable, like all other earthly things, is still the most lasting monument of events long since past, and the surest means of transmitting facts through successive generations. When the sounds of a language have ceased to reverberate, and no longer convey ideas through the human ear, that language still lives in written characters, which speak to the mind through the eyes, and even when the sense or meaning of those characters is lost or forgotten, genius, aided by phi-" lology, will, after many ages, revive, at least some fragments, and Champollions will arise, whose labors will perhaps succeed in recovering an ancient language, long considered as not only dead, but profoundly buried in the night of time. A science like this, so wide in its extent, and yet so homogeneous in all its parts, requires an appropriate name, a name familiar to men of science, and such as the learned world will easily be led to adopt. Various denominations have been attempt |