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of which the parts of a discourse are connected or separated, as the sense requires, and the elevation, depression or suspension of the voice indicated (from interpungere, to point). Punctuation serves both to render the meaning intelligible, and to aid the oral delivery. The system of punctuation is peculiar to the modern languages of Europe. The Eastern languages have signs to regulate the tones, but they have no punctuation. The Romans were, indeed, acquainted with the term (Cic., De Oratore, iii, 44 and 46, and Seneca, Ep., 40), but with them it had a totally different signification. Their points, as well as those of the Greeks, were almost entirely oratorical, i. e. confined to the delivery and pronunciation of the words; and there were often no points, or, at most, only one at the end of a sentence; or pauses were indicated by breaking up the matter into lines or paragraphs (versus, orixo.) Modern punctuation, which is, for the most part, grammatical, is of a later origin, and the invention has been attributed to the Alexandrian grammarian Aristophanes, after whom it was improved by succeeding grammarians; but it was so entirely lost in the time of Charlemagne, that he found it necessary to have it restored by Warnefried and Alcuin. It consisted, at first, of only one point, used in three ways (oyun; hence, in diplomatics, stigmeology, the art of punctuation), and sometimes of a stroke, both being formed in several different ways. But, as no particular rules were followed in the use of these signs, punctuation was exceedingly uncertain until the end of the fifteenth century, when the learned Venetian printers, the Manutii (q. v.), increased the number of the signs, and established some fixed rules for their application. These were so generally adopted, that we may consider them as the inventors of the present method of punctuation; and, although modern grammarians have introduced some improvements, nothing but some particular rules have been added since that time. (See Hebrew Language, and Manuscripts.) PUNDIT. (See Pandit.)

PUNIC (originally Phoenician, from Pœni, Phœnicians); Carthaginian, because Carthage was a Phoenician colony.-Punic wars; wars between Rome and Carthage. (See those articles, and Hannibal.)—Punic faith (fides Punica); among the Romans, a proverbial expression for faithlessness.

PUPA. (See Papilio, and Insects.)
PUPIL. (See Eye.)

PUPPET SHOWs. One of the most common classes of puppets are called,inFrench,

marionettes (from morio, fool, buffoon, as Frisch supposes). These are images of the human figure moved by wires or threads on a stage, and made to perform little dramas. In the common street performance of Punch and Judy, however, the performer put his fingers in the figures. Puppe shows were common among the Greeks (who called them uponacra), from whom the Romans received them. Xenophot Aristotle, Gellius, Horace, and others, mettion them. Such exhibitions, which are so pleasing to children and the uneducated. naturally passed through various degrees of perfection in different ages, and even now, exhibitions of puppets are common in some countries, which display great mechanica ingenuity, while the poor hand-organ bey in the street still turns his instrument, and gives to one or two figures on a boar before him a few simple motions with his foot. Clocks for the peasants often display movable puppets, and it is not unfrequent in Germany to find on ancient town clocks puppets which move whenever the clock strikes. In 1674, there was a puppet opera at Paris, which met with great applause. In several large cities of Italy, puppet shows are performed at present (e. g. at Milan, in the Teatro Girolamo which is visited by the better classes). In Germany, also, excellent puppet shows are sometimes seen, but they are there hardly ever stationary, and are not by any means so much patronised as in Italy As itinerary puppet shows have of given cause to scandal, several gover ments do not allow them but by spec's. license (e. g. those of Prussia and Dermark). The censorship, which limits the sphere, often does much injury to the effect, as the manager of the puppet show is thus precluded from availing hi self of the momentary inspiration of h muse, when he assists the performance by his voice, as is always the case in the ordinary puppet shows. For more par"ulars, see Beckmann's interesting His of Inventions and Discoveries. (See, ais Punchinello, and Automaton.)

PURANAS. (See Indian Literature, vol. vi, p. 563.)

PURCELL, Henry, an English musica composer, was the son of a musician of the chapel royal, who, dying in 1664, “ him an orphan in his sixth year. He w admitted, at an early age, a chorister in the king's chapel, where he studied music der captain Cook and his successor, Pe ham Humphrey, and afterwards undr doctor Blow. In 1676, when only eigh teen years old, he was made organist

: Westminster abbey, and six years after wards, at the chapel royal, St. James's. From this period his fame seems to have increased rapidly, his anthems and church music in general being popular in all the cathedrals of the kingdom; nor were his compositions for the stage and musicroom less successful. His genius embraced every species of composition with equal facility; and with respect to chamber music, all prior productions seem to have been at once totally superseded. Of his numerous compositions, his celebrated Te Deum and Jubilate appear to have been composed for the celebration of St. Cecilia's day, 1694. Of his instrumental music, a collection was published two years after his decease, containing airs in four parts, for two violins, tenor, and bass. Many of his songs were published after his death, under the title of Orpheus Britannicus. Ye twice ten hundred Deities, contained in this collection, is considered the finest piece of recitative in the language; while his music in King Arthur has maintained its popularity undiminished above a century. In 1695, the year of his death, he set to music Bonduca, and the Prophetess, an opera altered by Dryden from Beaumont and Fletcher; and he was the author of a vast variety of catches, rounds, glees, &c., not less remarkable for their melody than for their spirit, humor, and originality. He died in 1695.

PURCHAS, Samuel, an English divine, was born in 1577, at Thaxtead, in Essex, and educated at Cambridge. His principal work was entitled Purchas his Pilgrimages, or Relations of the World (5 vols., folio), which, with Hakluyt's Voyages, led the way to other collections of the same kind, and have been much valued and esteemed. The first volume was published in 1614; but the fourth edition of it, in 1626, contains numerous important additions. The four last volumes appeared in 1625. He also wrote Microcosnios, or the History of Man (8vo.); the King's Tower and Triumphal Arch of Loudon. Mr. Purchas was rector of St. Martin's in Ludgate, and chaplain to Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury. He died in London, in 1628.

PURCHASE, in law; the acquiring of land with money, by deed or agreement, and not by descent or right of inheritance. Purchase is also a name given to any sort of mechanical power employed in raising or removing heavy bodies.

PURGATORY, according to the dogma of the Roman Catholic church; a place of

purification, in which, after death, those souls are cleansed, which are not sufficiently pure to enjoy the happiness of heaven. The council of Trent confirmed this doctrine, as sanctioned by Holy Scripture aud tradition. The Protestants and the Greek church do not receive it. The passages of Scripture on which this article of faith is founded are, Revelations xxi, 27; 2 Maccabees xii, 38; Matthew xxv; Luke xii, 58; and 1 Corinthians iii, 2. Origen and Augustine, among the fathers, have been most full upon this point, upon which later Catholic theologians dwelt with still more minuteness. They teach that it is situated on the borders of the infernal pit; that a spark of its fires causes more suffering than any bodily pain; that every soul is purified in it, the members which have sinned being burned in its flames; and that, by masses for the deceased, their sufferings may be mitigated, and the time of their punishment shortened. The origin of this notion is to be traced to the doctrine of Plato, that there was a state of purification after death, which was introduced by the fathers of the church, particularly Clement (q. v.) of Alexandria, into the Christian system. Gregory the Great gave to this article a further extension, and employed it for the profit of the church. The council of Florence (1439) was the first in which the doctrine of purgatory was mentioned; the monstrous perversions which it had suffered in the hands of the monks, made it a prominent object of attack to the Protestants.

Purgatory [written by a German Catholic]. The doctrine of a state of future purification was closely connected by the ancients with that of the transmigration of souls, which, as it first prevailed among the Egyptians, was nothing more than a symbolical representation of the immortality of the soul. Succeeding philosophers made use of this doctrine of transmigration, to deter rude tribes from sin, by connecting their future condition with that of the various species of animals, which was well fitted to strike unreflecting natures. It was afterwards unhappily chosen to indicate the mode of the purification of the soul and its preparation for the joys of heaven. Plato did more than is usually believed to develope this doctrine. Such a middle state is consistent with reason, since there are men who, at death, are not deserving of the joys of heaven, nor of the punishments of hell; and the doctrine accords with the spirit of the Christian revelation, which represents the holiness of God, and declares that without

holiness no one can see, i. e. be united with him (Hebrews xii), and describes the purity which is required for admission to his presence (Revelations xxi, 27). The Jews had this doctrine. Judas the Maccabee caused prayers and victims to be offered for the warriors who had fallen in sin, that their sins might be pardoned, and they obtain the reward promised to those who die in piety (2 Maccabees xii). Christ confirmed this doctrine, when he (Matthew xii, 31, 32) spoke of the sins which were forgiven neither in this world nor in the next, and thus implied that such a forgiveness was in general attainable in another life. Christianity is far from pronouncing the severe doctrine, that eternal damnation is the portion of all Christians who have incurred the slightest sin. John (1 John v, 16, 17) says expressly that all unrighteousness is sin, but not all mortal sin. In what way the purification of the less guilty is to take place, is not known; and the church has never acknowledged the notions of physical pain which many have on this subject. If brotherly love bids us pray for the good of our fellow men (James v, 16), should it not impel us to pray for those of our brethren who may have so lived on earth as to be excluded from perfect happiness? It is impossible to prove that such prayers are wholly ineffectual. That the Jewish church prayed for the dead, appears from the passage in Maccabees above referred to. And in the oldest documents of Christian antiquity, we find this prayer as something common and unquestioned. Not only is it clearly proved to have existed from private accounts, but in all liturgies, which contain the general belief of the churches, this prayer for the dead appears. The fathers of the church were always of this opinion. There is certainly something consoling in the thought, that we may be of assistance to our departed friends; this feeling was expressed by the Romans in the wish, Sit tibi terra levis! The Catholic faith considers as one body, both those who are struggling here and those who exist in another life. Love unites all, and love teaches the pilgrims on earth to pray for the dead not yet made perfect. No one acquainted with the history of the sale of indulgences, can doubt that the views of future purification and of prayers for the dead, have been shamefully perverted for the purpose of gain. The council of Trent, therefore, while it maintained the decree de purgatorio, passed at its twenty-fifth session, added the following ordinance, but did not prescribe it as

a point of faith: "Since the holy Catholic church, instructed by the Holy Spirit, and by the Holy Scriptures, and by the primitive traditions transmitted from the fathers of the church, through synods and councils, has taught that there is a place of purification, and that the souls confined there are aided by the prayers of the faithful, and especially by the offering of the sacrament of the altar, the council commands the bishops to take care that the doctrine of a place of purification is taught and preached as it has been handed down from holy fathers and councils. The preachers shall not speak to the people of the more difficult and subtle questions, which edify not, and which, for the most part, do not contribute to piety; likewise, they shall not allow that which is doubtful, or probably false, to be treated of and spread abroad. Whatever is dictated merely by curiosity or superstition, or is connected with shameful gain, they shall forbid as wickedness, as offensive to true believers.”

PURITANS, in the English church; a sect who professed to follow the pure Word of God, in opposition to traditions, buman constitutions, and other authori ties. In the reign of queen Elizabeth, the Protestants were divided into two parties, those who were in favor of adhering to the liturgy established in the reign of Edward, and those who wished to introduce a simpler, and, as they considered it, a purer form of church government and worship. The latter were termed Puritans, and many of the distinguished clergy favored these views. The queen, however, and the majority of the clergy, preferred the Episcopal form of government, and were attached to many forms and ceremonies upon which the Puritans looked with aversion. The rigorous measures followed by the dominant party to compei conformity, only served to alienate the Puritanical party, and to push them into more decided opposition to the ceremonials of divine worship. In 1566, the Puritans resolved that duty required them to break off from the church, and assemble, as they best could, by themselves, to worship God in their own way; they also laid aside the English liturgy, and adopted the Geneva service-book. They objected further to the hierarchy, as not authorized by Scripture, to kneeling at the sacraments, using the sign of the cross in baptism. bowing at the name of Jesus, wearing the surplice and other vestments in divin service, &c. In point of doctrine there was as yet no difference between the Pu

ritans and Conformists; the former, however, as was natural for a persecuted party, maintained that every man had a natural right to judge for himself, without being subject to the laws of the civil magistrate, or the decrees of councils, churches, or synods. Towards the end of Elizabeth's reign, a party arose which were first for softening, and then for overthrowing, the received opinions concerning predestination, perseverance, free will, effectual grace, and the extent of Christ's redemption. The clergy of the church began to lean towards Arminianism, while the Puritans adhered rigorously to the system of Calvin, and all Calvinists, whether Episcopal or Presbyterian, were called doctrinal Puritans. The name was also applied to all who were remarkably strict in their morals, and severe in manDers. Elizabeth treated the Puritans with great rigor during the whole of her reign; besides the ordinary courts of the bishops, she erected the court of high-commission, which suspended and deprived the refractory of their livings, by the determination of three commissioners, founded upon the canon law; before this court the prisoner was obliged to answer questions put to him, under oath; if he refused to swear, be was imprisoned for contempt, and if he took the oath, he was convicted upon his own confession. During the reign of James I, from whom the Puritans had expected more indulgence, they were treated with greater severity, and many of them left the kingdom and retired to Holland, whence they emigrated to America in 1620. (See Plymouth.) All were looked upon by James and the court as Puritans, who opposed the arbitrary maxims of his government; and these were called Puritans in state, who, uniting with the church Puritans, in opposition to the tyrannical principles of the Stuart dynasty, formed a majority in the nation. The success of the first emigrators to America, who established the colony of New Plymouth, induced great numbers of Puritans to turn to the same quarter for relief, and the new colony of Massachusetts Bay was founded by them in 1629. (See New England.) The colony of New Haven was also founded by Puritans, who fled from the persecutions of Laud, and the oppressions of the star chamber and the high-commission courts. Though there were shades of difference in these fugitives to America, they agreed in most points of doctrine and discipline, and most of their descendants in New England, of which they compose the principal

part of the population, still cherish with fondness the maxims and the memory of their Puritan fathers. (See Independents.) The Puritans were afterwards prevented from retiring to America, and many of them removed into Holland, while others remained at home, and finally pulled down the throne and the altar, which long persecutions had rendered so odious to them. (See Cromwell, Hampden, Pym, &c.) It was the union of the three kinds of Puritans above-mentioned, which gave the parliament the victory in the civil war which followed. (See Charles I.) The Presbyterian party was at first the most powerful, but the Independents, among whom were Cromwell, Milton, &c., finally acquired the ascendency; and it was this party, most of whom were republicans in politics as well as in church discipline, that beheaded the king and abolished royalty. After the restoration of Charles II (q. v.), the act of uniformity (1662) excluded from the communion of the church all who refused to observe the rites and subscribe the doctrines of the church of England; and from that time the name of non-conformists was applied to such recusants, as, for instance, Presbyterians, Independents, Quakers, &c. (See Nonconformists, and England, Church of.) For a complete history of the Puritans, the reader may consult Neal's History of the Puritans (4 vols., 8vo., 1732-38; new ed. 5 vols., 1797).

PURPLE. The color to which the ancients applied the name purple, was either dark, or violet and rose colored, and was one of the most costly dyes with which they were acquainted. They obtained their purple dyes partly from plants, and partly from several kinds of shell fish, as the buccinum (a species of muscle), and the purpura, or purple fish. In modern times, a similar purple matter has been found in several other shell fish. It is a viscous juice, contained in a little pouch or bag, lying generally between the heart and liver. The color of the juice varies, being in some purplish red, in others pale yellow or orange colored. Réaumur found that the juice taken from the buccinum, on being applied to linen, changed, in the course of a few seconds, from yellow to green, blue, and finally to purplish red. The juice of the sea-snail, found by the Spaniards in Peru, and used for dyeing, presents similar phenomena. Cochineal is used for purple dyes by the moderns, and has the advantage that it strikes equally well on silks and woollen stuffs; while the ancients used their purple only on cotton and

woollen. The ancients attributed the invention of purple to the Phoenicians. The story of its having been discovered by a dog's biting a purple fish, and thus staiuing his mouth, is well known. The purple fish was found not only on the Phonician coasts, but in all other parts of the Mediterranean, so that the use of it in dyeing cane to be common with other nations; but the Phoenicians excelled in the beauty and permanence of their coloring. The Tyrians excelled particularly in the bright red and violet shade. They dyed the finest wools of this color, usually twice, and then gave an artificial brilliancy to the stuff.

PURPLE GRACKLE. (See Blackbird.) Purple of CasSIUS. (See Tin.) PURSE, among the Turks; the sum of $500, so called because the treasure in the seraglio is kept in leathern purses of this value.

PURSLANE (portulacea oleracea); a coinmon and insignificant weed, said to have come originally from India, but now almost universally diffused through the civilized world. The stems divide from the base into several prostrate branches, which are clothed with sessile, smooth, and wedge-shaped leaves; the flowers are small, yellow, and axillary. The whole plant is succulent. Formerly it was cultivated as a pot-herb, for salads, garnishings and pickling, and it is still sometimes employed for those purposes.

PURSUIVANT. (See Poursuivant.) PUTEOLI; the ancient name for Pozzuoli. (See Naples.).

PUTNAM, Israel, a distinguished soldier in the French and English wars, and subsequently in that of the revolution, was born of English parents, at Salem, in the then province of Massachusetts, Jan. 7, 1718. Being intended for a farmer, he received only a common education. He had a strong mind, vigorous constitution, great bodily strength, enterprise and activity, excelled in athletic exercises, and, while a stripling, was ambitious of performing the full labor of manhood. He married very young, and removed, in 1739, to Pomfret, in Connecticut, where he had purchased a tract of land. During his residence there, his flocks and those of his neighbors being terribly thinned by a monstrous she-wolf, Putnan), with a few associates, traced the ferocious animal to a deep cavern in a rock. Into this he crept alone, with a torch in one hand and a musket in the other, and, at the utmost personal risk, destroyed the creature. When the war of 1755 broke out between

France and England, he was appointed. at the age of thirty-seven, commander of a company, enlisted the necessary number of recruits from the young men in his vicinity, and joined the army then com mencing the campaign near Crown Point His services as a partisan officer were u remitting and great, and caused him to be promoted, in 1757, to the rank of major by the legislature of Connecticut. In 1758, he fell into an Indian ambuscade, and was taken prisoner, when returning Fort Edward from an expedition to watch the enemy's movements near Ticonderogs. The Indians were about to burn him death, having already tied him to a tree and set fire to a circle of combustibles around him, when he was rescued by the interposition of their leader, Molang, a famous French partisan officer. He was then carried to Ticonderoga, where i underwent an examination before the mar

quis de Montealm, who ordered him to Montreal. There he found several fellow prisoners, among whom was colonel Pete Schuyler, who immediately visited, an found him almost destitute of clothing and dreadfully wounded and bruise The colonel supplied him with money. and, having clothed himself in a dece garb, he was immediately treated with t respect due to his rank. An exchang of prisoners procured Putram his liber He resumed his military duties, and, bay ing previously been appointed a lieutenand colonel, rendered especial service at th siege of Montreal by the British, in 17 In 1762, after war had been declared be tween England and Spain, he accotape nied the expedition, under lord Albemar against the Havana. In 1764, hava been appointed colonel, he marched, a the head of a regiment, with gener Bradstreet, against the savages of western frontier. On his return from t expedition, which resulted in a treaty b tween the contending parties, he be himself, once more, to a country life, t several offices in his native town, and r resented it in the general assembly. 1770, he went, with general Lyman a some others, to explore a grant of land the Mississippi. General Lyman, as have already stated in our sketch of life, formed an establishment and d there; but Putnam returned, after hav made some improvements on his tr When hostilities commenced betw England and the colonies (April 18, 1777 Putnam received the intelligence was ploughing in the middle of a fi he left his plough there, unyoked

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