scends to explain by them the changes 35. All those who either embraced the which take place in nature, the purposes sentiments of Des Cartes or adopted his and the attributes of God, the character rules of philosophising endeavoured to and duties of men, and the constitution and elucidate, confirm, amend, and perfect the fabric of the universe; this, more timid and metaphysical method in philosophy. And modest, first inspects most attentively the these persons were very numerous in this objects which meet the eye and which century, especially in Holland and France. lie as it were at our feet, and then ascends But as some of this class not obscurely to inquiries into the nature and causes of undermined religion and the belief of a things. That supposes very much to be God, of whom Benedict de Spinoza was perfectly well understood, and therefore is the ringleader, and as others of them very ready to attempt reducing its know abused the precepts of their master to ledge into the form of a regular and com- pervert and overthrow certain doctrines plete system; this supposes innumerable of religion, as Balthazar Becker, hence things to elude our grasp, and instructs its in various places the whole school became followers to suspend all judgment on nu- extremely odious. There were none who merous points, until time and experience pursued the metaphysical method more shall throw more light upon them; and wisely and at the same time more acutely lastly, it supposes that the business of than Francis Nicholas Malebranche and making out complete systems, as they are Godfrey William Leibnitz; the former, a called, either entirely exceeds human abi- Frenchman and one of the Fathers of the lity, or must be left to future generations Oratory, a man equally eloquent and acute; who shall have learned far more from the latter, a German, to be ranked with experience than we have. This disagree- the first genius of any age. Neither of ment respecting the first principles of all them indeed received all the dicta of Des human knowledge has produced much Cartes, but they adopted his general me dissension upon subjects of the greatest thod of philosophising, added many opinions importance, such as the character of God, of their own, improved many things, the nature of matter, the elements of confirmed others with more solid argubodies, the laws of motion, the mode of ments. Malebranche yielded too much to the divine government or providence, the his very fertile imagination; and therefore constitution of the universe, the nature and he often inclined towards those who are mutual relation of souls and bodies; and agreeably deceived by the visions of their the wise who reflect upon the subject of own creation. Leibnitz depended entirely these disputes, and upon the habits and on his reason and judgment. dispositions of human minds, are fearful that these controversies will be perpetual.1 At the same time, good men would be less troubled about these contests if the parties would show more moderation, and would not each arraign the other as chargeable with a grievous offence against God, and as subverting the foundations of all religion." 1 Voltaire published a few years since, La Métaphysique de Neuton, ou Parallèle des Sentimens de Neuton et de Leibnitz, Amsterd. 1740, 8vo, which little book, though not so accurately written as it should be, nor a complete treatise on the subject, will yet be not a little serviceable to those who wish to know how much these philosophic schools disagree. and 36. The mathematical philosophy alread mentioned had a much smaller number followers and friends, the causes of which See Maireaux. Nor were the Metaphysical philosophers more tempe 3 Concerning Malebranche, the author of the inte resting work entitled, Search after Truth [Recherche * It is well known that Des Cartes and his followers, de la Vérité, Paris, 1673, 3 vols. 12mo, also translated the metaphysical philosophers, were formerly accused into English, in one vol. fol.-Mur.], and of other by vast numbers and they are still accused of subvert- metaphysical works, see Fontenelle, Elogès des Acadé ing all religion and piety. In the list of Atheists Un-miciens de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, tome 1 masked, by Harduin (unres Mêlées, p. 200, &c.), Des 317, &c. For what is reprehensible in his philosophy, Cartes, with his principal and most noble followers, see Harduin's Atheists Unmasked, in his Eucres Me Anthony le Grand and Silvanus Regis, hold a conspi-lées, p. 43, &c. The life and doctrines of Leibnits are cuous place. Nor is the name of Malebranche, though many think nearer allied to the fanatics, excluded from this black catalogue. (See p. 43.) It is true that Harduin very often talks like one delirious; yet he does not here follow his own genius, but adopts the views of the Peripatetic and Mathematical sects, who more fiercely than others assailed the Cartesian philosophy. And even very recently Voltaire, though he is much more moderate, yet not obscurely assents to these accusations. (Métaphysique de Neuton, chap. i. p. 3, &c.) described by the same Fontenelle, ubi supra, tome i p 9. But his history and his philosophy are the most copiously described by Ludovici, in his History of the Leibnitian Philosophy, written in German, 2 vols. Lips. 1737, 8vo. The genius of this great man may be most satisfactorily learned by reading his Epistles. published by Kortholt, in 3 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, and afterwards by others. Nor is it necessary I should here draw his portrait. [Of these two eminent men see also Hallam, ubi supra.— R. will readily occur to those disposed to inquire for them. But it found a new domicile in Great Britain, the philosophers of which perceiving in its infantile and immature features a resemblance of the great Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, took it into their arms, cherished it, and to our times have given it fame. The whole Royal Society of London, which is almost the public school of the nation, approved of it, and with no less expense than pains and patience improved and extended it. For their pupils and their reputation, yet all the philosophers would not join themselves to the one or the other of them. liberty of thinking for themselves being obtained, some men of superior genius and acumen, and some also whose imaginations were stronger than their judgments, ventured to point out new ways for discovering latent truths. But nearly all of them failed of obtaining many followers, so that it will be sufficient just to glance at the subIn particular,ject. There were some whose mediocrity of talents or whose native indolence deterred them from the difficult and laborious task of investigating truth by the efforts of their own minds; and who therefore attempt to collect and form into a kind of system the best and most satisfactory principles admitted by all the schools. These are commonly denominated Eclectics. And finally, from these very contests of the philosophers, some very acute men took occasion to despair of finding the truth, and again to open the long-closed school of the Seeptics. Among these, the more distinguished were Francis Sanches, a physician of Toulouse, Francis de la Mothe le Vayer, Peter Daniel Huet, bishop of Avranches, and some others. It is usual and not without reason to place among this class Peter Bayle, who acquired high reputation in the latter part of this century by various works rich in matter and elegant in style. it is very much indebted for its progress to those immortal men, Isaac Barrow, John Wallis, John Locke, and Robert Boyle, who should have been named first, a very religious gentleman, much noted among other things for his very learned works. The theologians also of that country, a class of men whom philosophers are wont to charge with violently opposing their measures, deemed it not only sound and harmless, but most useful to awaken and cherish feelings of reverence for the Deity and to defend religion, and most consonant with the decisions of the Holy Scriptures and the primitive church. And hence all those who publicly assailed the enemies of God and religion in the Boyle Lectures, descended into the arena clad in its armour and wielding its weapons. But by the ingenuity and diligence of no one have its increase and progress been more aided than by those of Isaac Newton, a man of the highest excellence, and venerable even in the estiImation of his opposers; for he spent the whole of his long life in digesting, correcting, amplifying, and demonstrating it, both by experiments and by computations; and with so much success, that from only silver it seemed to become gold in his hands. The English say that the excellence and the superior value of this philosophy may be learned from this fact, that all those who have devoted themselves wholly to it have left behind them bright examples of sanctity and solid piety; while, on the other hand, many of the metaphysical philosophers have been entirely estranged from God and his worship, and were teachers and promoters of the greatest impiety. 37. But although these two illustrious schools had deprived the ancient ones of I This great man's Elementa Philosophic Mathematice, often printed, and his other writings, philosophical and mathematical and also theological, are of great notoriety. His life and merits are elegantly described by Fontenelle, Elogés des Académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, tome ii. p. 293-323. Add Biblioth. Angloise, tome xv. part ii. p. 545, and Biblioth. Raitonnée, tome vi. part ii. p. 478. 5 There is a celebrated work of his entitled, De eo, quod nihil scitur; which, with his other tracts and his 2780, &c. 4 His book on the Weakness of Human Reason was published after his death, both in French, Amsterd. 1723, 8vo, and recently in Latin. But it appears that long before this book was either published or written, Huet had recommended the mode of philosophising adopted by the sceptics, and thought this alone best See his suited to establish the Christian religion. Commentarius de Rebus ad eum pertinentibus, lib. iv. p. 230, and his Demonstratio Evangelica, preface, sec. iv. p. 9, where he approves of the measures of those who first sceptical arguments, before they prove to the doubting enervate all philosophy and expel it from the mind by the truth of Christianity. We are aware that the Jesuits, to whom Huet was much inclined, formerly hazardous artifice, in order to draw over Protestants to adopted with success and do still adopt this very the Romish community. 5 Who at this day can be unacquainted with Bayle? His Life, copiously written in two volumes 8vo, by Des Maizeaux, was published at the Hague in 1732 [and is prefixed to the fifth edition of his Dictionnaire Hist. et Critique, Basil, 1738, 4 tomes, fol.] His scepticism was most clearly shown and confuted with great dexterity by De Crousaz, in a very copious French work (Examen du Pyrrhonisme], a neat abridgment of which was made by Sam. Formey [Le Triomphe de l'Evi dence], and translated from French into German, by Haller, Gotting. 1750, 8vo. [See also Bayle's own answer to this and other charges brought against him, subjoined to the fifth edition of his Dictionnaire, tome iv. p. 616, &c.-Mur. SECTION II. THE PARTICULAR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. PART I. THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT CHURCHES CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY OF THE ROMISH OR LATIN CHURCH. his tants he was extremely cruel and harsh. Yet Urban will appear kind and good, if compared with Innocent X. [1644-1655] of the family of Pamphili, who succeeded 1. Ar the commencement of this century, him in 1644. For he was ignorant of all the Romish church was governed by Cle- those things of which ignorance is least ment VIII. [A.D. 1592-1605] whose former excusable in heads of the church, and surname was Aldobrandini, and who reigned rendered up himself and all public affairs in the close of the preceding century. That civil and sacred to the control of Olympia he possessed genius and cunning, and was his kinswoman, a most vicious creature. very zealous for suppressing Protestantism avaricious and insolent. His very zealous and extending the Romish church, all admit; efforts to prevent the peace of Westphalia, but whether he had all the prudence neces-I do not think we should reckon among sary for a sovereign pontiff, many have peculiar crimes, because, if I am not greatly questioned. He was succeeded [during 27 mistaken, the best of pontiffs would have days] in the year 1605 by Leo XI. of the done the same. His successor in 1655. family of Medici, who died at an advanced Alexander VII. previously Fabius Chi age in the very year of his elevation and [A.D. 1655-1667], is deserving of a little left the Romish chair to Paul V. of the more commendation. Yet he was not family of Borghese [1605-1621], who was lacking in any of those stains which the a man of violent passions and frequently a pontiffs cannot wash off and yet preserve most insolent asserter of his prerogatives, their rank and authority; and discerning as appears, among other things, from his and distinguished men even in the Romish rash and unsuccessful conflict with the church have described him as possessing Venetians. In Gregory XV. [1621-1623] slender talents, inadequate to the manage of the family of Ludovici, who was elected in 1621, there was more moderation than in Paul V. but no more gentleness towards those who forsook the Romish church. This however is the common and almost necessary fault of all the Roman pontiffs, who without it could scarcely fulfil the high duties of their office. Urban VIII. of the family of Barberini [1623-1644], whom the favour of the cardinals placed in the Romish chair in 1623, showed himself very favourable and liberal to learned and literary men, being himself well versed in literature and an excellent writer both in prose and verse;' but towards the Protes-and other cloisters threatened with the same fate had 1 See Leo Allatius, Apes Urbana, which little book was republished by Fabricius at Hamburg. It is a full catalogue of the learned and excellent men who adorned Rome in the pontificate. 'Urban VIII. and who experienced the liberality of at pontiff. The neat and elegant Latin poems of this pontiff have been often printed. [These poems were written while he was a cardinal. Under him nepotism greatly prevailed, and the political transactions of his court are ascribable more to his nephews and family than to him. He prosured a very distinguished edition of the Romish Breviary, suppressed the order of female Jesuits, con ferred the title of Eminence on the cardinals and on all cardinal-legates, on the three clerical German electors and on the grand master of the order of Malta - Schl Mémoires du Cardinal de Retz, tome iii. p. 102, &c. newest edition. Add tome iv. p. 12. Respecting his contests with the French, see Bougeant's Histoire de s Paix de Westphalie, tome iv. p. 56, &c. [Respecting Olympia, see La Vie d'Olympe Maldachini Princesse Pamfili, trad. de l' Italien de l'Abbé Gualdi, avec des notes par M. I. Geneva (or rather Paris), 1770, 12mo. The original was published in 1666, 12mo. Innocent before which was continued after his elevation, and was car ried to such lengths that the Donna, under the reign of her dear brother-in-law, possessed all power, sold all offices and prebends, gathered money in a thousand ways, opened the despatches of the envoys, and guided and controlled all state affairs. She suppressed nearly 2,000 minor cloisters, and thereby obtained vast sums; his election had lived in free intercourse with Olympia. her to purchase their freedom. She was for some time excluded from the palace and removed from the court by cardinal Pancirolla and his creature, the pretended cardinal Pamphili, whose proper name was Astalli and who had no connexion with the pope. But she soon after returned to her old place and was the absolute mistress of the Vatican, where she at last took up residence; indeed the unfriendly chroniclers say that one of her earrings was found in the pope's bed. And such was the pontiff who persuaded Ferdinand III. to hold the sword always drawn over the Protestants, who condemned Jansenius, and who entered his dissent against the peace of Westphalia.-Schl. 1 ment of great affairs, an insidious disposition, | worthy regulations and enactments of Innoand the basest instability. The two Cle- cent fell to the ground and were overthrown ments IX. and X. who were elected, the by the indolence and the yielding temper of one in 1668 and the other in 1669 [1670- Alexander VIII. of the Ottoboni family, 1676], performed little worth recording for who was created pope in the year 1689 posterity. The former was of the family of [A.D. 1689-1691]. Innocent XII. of the Rospigliosi, and the latter of that of Altieri. family of Pigniatelli, a good man and posInnocent XI. previously Benedict Ode- sessed of fine talents, who succeeded Alexscalchi, who ascended the papal throne in ander in the year 1691 [A.D. 1691-1700], 1677 [1676-1689], acquired a high and wished to restore the regulations of Innocent permanent reputation by the strictness of XI. to their authority, and he did partially his morals, his uniform consistency, his restore them. But he too had to learn that abhorrence of gross superstition, his zeal the wisest and most vigorous pontiffs are to purge religion of fables and reform the inadequate to cure the maladies of the clergy, and by other virtues. But his court and church of Rome; nor did posexample most clearly shows that much may terity long enjoy the benefits he had probe attempted and but little accomplished vided for them. At the very end of the by pontiff's, although they possess perfectly century, 1699 [A.D. 1700-1721], Clement sound views and upright intentions; and XI. of the family of Albani was placed at that the wisest regulations cannot long the head of the Romish church. He was resist the machinations of such a multitude clearly the most learned of the cardinals, of persons, fostered and raised to power and not inferior to any of the preceding and influence by licentiousness of morals, pontiffs in wisdom, mildness, and the desire pious frauds, fables, errors, and worthless to reign well. Yet he was so far from institutions. At least, nearly all the praise- strenuously opposing the inveterate maladies and the unseemly regulations of the Romish church, that indiscreetly and us he suppcsed for the glory and security of the church, i.e. of the head of it, he rather admitted many things which conduce to its dishonour, and which show that even the better sort of pontiffs, through their zeal to preserve or to augment their dignity and honour, may easily fall into the greatest errors and faults. 1 See the Mémoires du Card. de Retz, tome iv. p. 16, &c. p. 77, who very sagaciously decides many points respecting him; also Mémoires de M. Joly, tome ii. p. 186, 210, 237, who speaks equally ill of Alexander; and the celebrated Arckenholz, Mémoires de la Reine Christine, tome ii. p. 125, &c. [The craft and dissimulation attributed to this pontiff really constituted an essential part of his character; but it is not strictly true that he difficult undertakings. He was a man of learning, and discovered very eminent abilities at the treaty of MunSome writers relate that while he was in Germany he had formed the design of abjuring popery and embracing the Protestant religion, but was deterred from the execution of his purpose by the example of his cousin count Pompey, who was poisoned at Lyons on his way to Gerinany after he had abjured the Romish faith. These writers add that Chigi was confirmed in his religion by his elevation to the cardinalship. See Bayle, Nouvelles de la Répub. des Lettres, Octob. 1688.-Maci. was a man of a mean genius, or unequal to great and ster, where he was sent in the character of nuncio. 2 Mémoires de la Reine Christine, tome ii. p. 126, 131. [Clement IX. was a ruler fond of peace and splendour, a foe to nepotism, and a beneficent friend to his subjects. Clement X. was no less fond of peace than his predecessor, but he introduced a peculiar kind of nepotism by adopting as his son the cardinal Paolucci. Yet his six years' reign exhibited nothing remarkable. Schl. the clergy, and to extirpate nepotism. But he often went too far, and his reforming zeal frequently extended to things indifferent. For instance, he wished to prohibit the clergy from taking snuff, and the ladies from learning music and the like. And in this way he would have hindered the good effects of his zeal for reformation if he had met with no obstructions to be overcome. To canonization and to the reading of the bull In Cana Domini he was no friend. He actually canonized no one; and on Maunday Thursdays, on which this bull was to be read, he always gave out that he was sick. His Life was written by Philip Bonamici, the papal secretary of the Latin Briefs, with design probably to favour his canonization, in which business he was the Postulator; and it was entitled Commentar. de Vita et Rebus Gestis Venerab. Servi Dei Innocentii XI. Pont. Max. Rome, 1776, 8vo.- Schl. • Alexander VIII. restored nepotism, condemned the Jesuitical error of philosophical sin, and benefited the Vatican library by purchasing the library of queen Christina.-Schl See the Journal Universel, tome i. p. 441, &c. tome vi. p. 306. The present pontiff, Benedict XIV. attempted in the year 1743 to enrol Innocent XI. among the saints. But Louis XV. king of France, influenced it is said by the Jesuits, resisted the measure because Louis XIV. had had much controversy with this pontiff, as we shall state hereafter. [It is a remarkable 5 Cardinal Henry Noris says much respecting Innocircumstance in his life, that in the Thirty Years' War he cent XII. his election, character, and morals, in his served in Germany as a soldier; and there is still shown Epistles, published in his Opera, tom. v. p. 362, 365, at Wolfenbuttle the house in which as an officer he is 370, 373, 380. [His hostility to nepotism, and his insaid to have resided. This circumstance indeed the flexibility, his strictness, and his frugality, were as count Turrezonico has called in ques on, in his work great as those of Innocent XI. His strictness he maniDe Supposititiis Stipendiis Militaribu Jened. Odeschal-fested in particular by forbidding the clergy to wear chi, Como, 1742, fol. But Heumann is placed the fact wigs, and by requiring the monks to live according to beyond all doubt in the Hannöverisch, nützlichen Samm- their rules. He was so little disposed to burn heretics lungen, 1755, p. 1185; and in the Beyträge von alten u. that the Inquisition began to doubt his orthodoxy; and neuen theologischen Sachen, 1755, p. 882. He however when he wished to protect Molinos, they by commisafterwards assumed the sacred office; and even on the sioners put this question to him, "What did Aloysius papal throne exhibited the virtues of a military com- Pigniatelli believe?"-Schl. mander, courage, strictness, and inflexibility of purpose. He sought to diminish the voluptuousness and splendid extravagance of his court. to correct all abuses among There were published the last year (A.D. 1752], in French, two biographies of Clement XI. the one composed by the celebrated Lafitau, bishop of Sisteron in done to 2. The great pains taken by the Romish | commenced near the beginning of the cenchurch to extond their power among the tury in the Austrian territories, where those barbarous nations which were ignorant of citizens who had renounced the Romish Christianity have been already noticed. religion were oppressed in numberless ways We have therefore now only to describe with impunity by their adversaries, and their care and efforts to recover their lost were divested of all their rights. Most of possessions, or to bring the Protestants them had neither resolution nor ability to under subjection. And for this their efforts defend their cause, though guaranteed by were astonishingly great and various. In the most solemn treaties and laws. The the struggle they resorted to the powers of Bohemians alone, when they perceived it genius, to arms and violence, to promises, to be the fixed purpose of the adherents of to flatteries, to disputations, and to wiles the pope, by gradual encroachments to deand fallacies, but for the most part with prive them of all liberty of worshipping little success. In the first place, in order God according to the dictates of their to demonstrate the justice of that war which consciences, though purchased with immense they had long been preparing to carry on expense of blood by their fathers and but by means of the house of Austria against recently confirmed to them by royal charthe followers of the purer faith, they in ter, resolved to resist the enemies of their part suffered and in part caused the peace souls with force and arms. Therefore settled with the Protestants by Charles V. having entered into a league, they ventured to be assailed by Casper Scioppius, a per- courageously to avenge the wrongs fidious but learned man, by the Jesuits, them and to their religion. And that they Adam Tanner, Anthony Possevin, Balthazar sometimes went farther than either discre Hager, Thomas Hederick, and Lawrence tion or the precepts of that religion which Forer, the jurists of Dillingen and others. they defended would justify, no one will For they wished to have it believed that deny. This boldness terrified their adver this treaty of peace was unjust, that it had saries, but it did not entirely dismay them. no legitimate force, and that it was violated The Bohemians therefore in order to pluck and rendered null by the Protestants them-up the very roots of the evil, when the selves, because they had either corrupted or forsaken the Augsburg Confession. This malicious charge was repelled privately by many Lutheran divines, and publicly in 1628 and 1631, by order of John George, elector of Saxony, in two volumes accurately drawn up by Matthias Hoe, which were called the Lutherans' Defence of the Apple of their Eye (Defensio Pupilla Lutherana), to indicate the importance of the subject. The assailants however did not retreat, but eontinued to dress up their bad cause in numerous books written for the most part in an uncouth and sarcastic style. And on the other hand, many of the Lutherans exposed their sophisms and invectives. 3. The religious war which the pontiffs had for a long time been projecting to be carried on by the Austrians and Spaniards France, Vie de Clement XI. Padua, 1752, 2 tomes, 8vo; the other composed by Reboulet, chancellor of Avignon, Histoire de Clement XI. Avignon, 1752, 2 tomes, 4to. Both (but especially the latter) are written with elegance; both contain many historical errors which French historians are commonly not duly careful to avoid; both are not so much histories as panegyrics, yet are such that discerning readers can easily discover that though very discreet, Clement from a desire to confirm and exalt the pontifical majesty did many things very imprudently, and by his own fault brought much vexation on himself. [On the characters and policy of these pontiffs, see especially Ranke's Popes of Rome, vols. ii. and iii. Mrs. Austin's translation.-R. Respecting these writings see, besides others, Salig's Historie der Augsb. Confession, vol. i. book iv. chap. iii. p. 458, &c. [See also Schlegel's notes to this paragraph -Mur. emperor Matthias died in 1619, thought it their duty to elect for their sovereign one who was not a Roman Catholic. This they supposed they had a right to do by the ancient privileges of the nation, which had been accustomed to elect their sovereigns by a free suffrage, and not to receive them by any natural or hereditary right. The consequence was that Frederick V. the electoral prince Palatine, who professed the Reformed religion, was chosen and solemnly crowned this very year at Prague.' 4. But this step, from which the Bobe mians anticipated security to their cause, brought ruin upon their new king and upon themselves various calamities, including that which they most dreaded, the loss of a religion purged of Romish corruptions. Frederick, being vanquished by the imperial forces at Prague in the year 1620, lost not What occurred in Austria itself is laboriously nar rated by Raupach, in his Austria Evangelica, written in German. The sufferings of the friends of a purer faith in Styria, Moravia, and Carinthia, and the arts by which they were utterly suppressed, the same diligent and pious writer intended to have described from pub lished and unpublished documents, but death prevented him. [Something on the subject, as far down as the year 1564, to which date Raupach had arrived when death overtook him, Winkler has left us in his Anec dota Histor. Eccles. par. viii. p. 233, &c.-Schl 3 Here, in addition to the writers of the ecclesiastical history of this century, Carolus, and Jäger, see Struve's Syntagma Histor. German. p. 1487, 1510, 1523, 1538 &c. and the authors he cites. Add the accurate Le Vassor's Histoire de Louis XIII. tome iii. page 223, &c. |