extreme disgrace and immense evils upon | 1216, and governed the Roman church the king. Of the Lateran council under more than ten years, did not perform so Innocent, in the year 1215, we shall have many deeds worthy of being recorded; occasion to speak hereafter. yet he was very careful that the Romish 9. Honorius III. previously called Cen-power should receive no diminution. Purtius Savelli, who succeeded Innocent, A.D. to prevent any interpretation of this compliance which might be prejudicial to his rights, dignity, and prerogative. This exception was rejected, and the interdict was proclaimed. A stop was immediately put to divine service; the churches were shut; the administration of all the sacraments was suspended except that of baptism; [and the eucharist, with confession, under the last necessity]; the dead were buried in the highways without the usual rites or any funeral solemnity. But notwithstanding this interdict, the Cistertian order continued to perform divine service, and several learned and respectable divines, among whom were the bishops of Winchester and Norwich, protested against the injustice of the pope's proceedings. suing this course, he had a grievous dispute with the emperor Frederick II. a magnanimous prince, whom he himself had crowned at Rome in the year 1220. Fre. derick imitating his grandfather, laboured to establish and enlarge the authority of the emperors in Italy, to depress the minor states and republics of Lombardy, and to diminish the immense wealth and power of the pontiffs and the bishops; and to accomplish these cbjects he continually deferred the crusade, which he had promised with an oath. Honorius on the other hand continually urged Frederick to enter on his expedition to Palestine ; monarch. This sentence, which was issued out in the and at the same time he encouraged, aniyear 1208, was followed about three years after by a mated, and supported the cities and repubbull, absolving all his subjects from their oath of allelics which resisted the emperor, and raised giance, and ordering all persons to avoid him on pain of excommunication. But it was in the year 1212 that various impediments to his increasing enormous length, when assembling a council of cardi-power. Yet this hostility did not at prenals and prelates he deposed John, declared the throne sent break out in open war. of England vacant, and wrote to Philip Augustus, king of France, to execute this sentence, to undertake the The interdict not producing the effects expected from it, the pontiff proceeded to a still farther degree of severity and presumption, and denounced a sentence of excommunication against the person of the English Innocent carried his impious tyranny to the most the infidels in Palestine. The French monarch en immense preparations for the invasion of England. 10. But under Gregory IX. whose forconquest of England, and to unite that kingdom to his mer name was Hugolinus, and who was dominions for ever. He at the same time published elevated from the bishopric of Ostia to the another bull, exhorting all Christian princes to contribute whatever was in their power to the success of pontificate, A.D. 1227, an old man but this expedition, promising to those who seconded Philip still bold and resolute, the fire which had in this grand enterprise the saine indulgences which been long burning in secret burst into a were thus granted to those who carried arms against flame. In the year 1227 the pontiff extered into the views of the Roman pontiff, and made communicated the emperor, who still deThe king of England on the other hand assembled ferred his expedition to Palestine; but his forces, and was putting himself in a posture of without proceeding in due form of eccledefence, when Pandulf, the pope's legate, arrived at siastical law, and without regarding the Dover, and proposed a conference in order to prevent the approaching rupture and to conjure the storm. emperor's excuse of ill health. In the This artful legate terrified the king who met him at year 1228 the emperor sailed with his fleet that place, with an exaggerated account of the armament of Philip on the one hand, and of the disaffec- to Palestine; but instead of waging war, tion of the English on the other; and persuaded him as he was bound to do, on recovering that there was no possible way left of saving his Jerusalem he made a truce with Salaking, but of putting them under the protection of the din. While he was absent the pontiff Roman see. John, finding himself in such a perplex- raised war against him in Apulia, and his court and in the officers of his army, complied with this dishonourable proposal, did homage to Innocent, resigned his crown to the legate, and received it again as a present from the see of Rome, to which he rendered his kingdoms tributary and swore fealty as a vassal and feudatory. In the act by which he resigned thus scandalously his kingdoms to the papal jurisdiction, he declared that he had been compelled to this measure neither by fear nor by force; but that it was all his own voluntary deed, performed by the advice and with the consent of the barons of his kingdom. He obliged himself and his heirs to pay the sum of seven hundred marks for England, and three hundred for Ireland, in acknowledgment of the pope's supre dominions from the formidable arms of the French ing situation, and full of distrust both in the nobles of macy and jurisdiction; and consented that he, or such of his successors as should refuse to pay the submisall their right to the British [English] crown.-Macl. [See the Romanist view of these transactions in Lingard's Hist. of Eng. 4to, vol. iii. p. 15. They are also treated of at length by Hurter in his Geschichte des Papst Innocenz des Dritten u. sein Zeitgen. Hamb. 1834. 2 vols. 8vo, translated into French by MM. Jager and sion now stipulated to the see of Rome, should forfeit Vial, 2 vols. 8vo. The original documents are in Rymer's Fadera, &c. vol. x.-R endeavoured to excite all Europe to op- of Europe, of many crimes and enormities, | throne. This most unrighteous decision and particularly of speaking contemptu- of the pontiff had such influence upon the ously of the Christian religion. The em- German princes who were infected with the peror, on the other hand, avenged the superstition of the times, that they elected injuries he received, both by written pub- first Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, and lications and by his military operations in on his death William, count of Holland, to Frederick continued Italy, in which he was for the most part the imperial throne. successful; and thus he defended his repu- the war vigorously and courageously in tation and brought the pontiff into per- Italy and with various success, until a dyTo rescue himself sentery terminated his life in Apulia on the On the plexity and difficulty. in some measure, in the year 1240 Gre- 13th of December, A D. 1250. gory summoned a general council to meet death of his foe, Innocent returned to at Rome, intending to hurl the emperor Italy in the year 1251. From this time from his throne by the votes of the holy especially (though their origin was much fathers. But Frederick in the year 1241 earlier), the two noted factions of Guelphs captured the Genoese fleet, which was car- and Gibellines, of which the former sided rying the greater part of the prelates to with the pontiffs and the latter with the the council at Rome, and seizing the per- emperors, most unhappily rent asunder and sons and the treasures of the prelates he devastated all Italy." cast them into prison. Broken down by these calamities and by others of no less magnitude, Gregory sank into the grave a few days after.' 12. Alexander IV. whose name as count of Segni and bishop of Ostia was Raynald, hecame pontiff on the death of Innocent, A.D. 1257, and reigned six years and six months. Excepting some efforts to put down a grandson of Frederick II. called Conradin, and to quiet the perpetual commotions of Italy, he busied himself more in regulating the internal affairs of the church than in national concerns. The Mendicant Friars or the Dominicans and Franciscans, especially owed much to his benevolence." Urban IV. before his election to the ponti 11. The successor of Gregory, Geoffry of Milan who assumed the name of Coelestine IV. died before his consecration; and after a long interregnum in the year 1243, Sinibald, of the Genoese family of Fiesque who were counts, succeeded under the pontifical name of Innocent IV. a man inferior to none of his predecessors in arrogance and insolence of temper." Between him and Frederick there were at first negocia-ficate in 1261 was James, patriarch of tions for peace, but the terms insisted on by the pontiff were deemed too hard by the emperor. Hence Innocent, feeling himself unsafe in any part of Italy, A.D. 1244 removed from Genoa to Lyons in France; and the next year assembled a council at Lyons, in the presence of which but without its approbation (whatever the Roman writers may affirm to the contrary3) he declared Frederick unworthy of the imperial Jerusalem, a man born of obscure parentage at Troyes. He distinguished himself more by instituting the festival of the body of Christ than by any other achievement. He indeed formed many projects but he executed few of them, being prevented by death in the year 1264, after a short reign of three years. Not much longer was the reign of Clement IV. a Frenchman and bishop of Sabina, under the name of Guido Fulcodi, who was created pontiff in the year 1265. Yet he is better known on several accounts, but especially for his conferring the kingdom of Naples on Charles of Anjou, brother to Lewis IX. the king 1 Besides the original writers who are all collected by Muratori, Scriptores Rerum Italicar. and the authors of German and Italian history, of whom however few or none are impartial, the reader should consult especially Peter de Vineis, Epistolæ, liber i. and Matthew Paris, Historia Major. Add also Raynald's Annales; Muratori's Annales Italice, tom. vii. and Antiq. Italice, of France, who is well known to have tom. ix. p. 325, 517, &c. and others. But this whole history needs a fuller investigation. 2 See Matthew Paris, Historia Major, especially on A.. 1254, p. 771. 3 This council is classed among the general coun cils, yet the French do not so regard it. [See Bossuet's beheaded Conradin, the only surviving grandson of Frederick II. after conquering him in battle; and this if not by the counsel, at least with the consent of the pontiff. 5 Muratori's Diss. de Guelfis et Gibellinis, in his Antiq. Ital. Medii Evi, tom. iv. p. 606. Defensio Declarationis Cleri Gallici, tom. i. p. 311; 4 See in addition to the writers already mentioned Natalis Alexander, Hist Eccles. Selecta Cap. sæcul. xiii. diss. v. art. iii. sec. viii.; Du Pin's Auteurs Ec- Nicol. de Curbio, Vita Innocentii IV. in Baluze's Misclés. centur. xiii. cap. i.; and Walch's Hist. der Kr-cellanea, tom. vii. p. 353, &c. There were about 140 chenversamml. p. 739, &c. Frederick's advocate appealed prelates in the council. to a more general council. The pontiff maintained it Walch allows that the council to be general enough. assented to the excommunication of the emperor but not to his deposition, which was the mere sovereign act of the pontiff, and at which all present were astonished. -Mur Two biographies of him are found in Muratori's Scriptores Rerum Italicar. tom. iii. par. i. p. 592, &c.- Schl. 7 His biography also may be seen in Muratori, ubi supra, tom. iii. par. i. p. 593, and par. ii. p. 405.-Schl. 8 Two lives of him likewise are in Muratori, ubi supra, tom. iii. par. i. p. 594.- Schl Ин 15. His successor Martin IV. elected by the cardinals in 1281, was a French nobleman named Simon de Brie, a man of equal boldness and energy of character with Nicolaus. For he excommunicated Michael Palæologus the Greek emperor, because he had violated the compact of union with the Latins, which was settled at the council of Lyons under Gregory X.; and Peter of Aragon he divested of his kingdoms and of all his property, because he had seized upon Sicily; and he bestowed them gratuitously on Charles son to the king of France; but 13. On the death of Clement IV. there | accomplished, being a man of energy and were vehement contests among the cardi- enterprise, had he not prematurely died in nals respecting the election of a new pon- the year 1280. tiff, which continued till the third year; when at last A.D. 1271 Thibald of Placentia, and archdeacon of Liege, was chosen and assumed the name of Gregory X. He had been called from Palestine where he had resided; and having witnessed the depressed state of the Christians in the Holy Land, nothing more engaged his thoughts than sending them succour. Accordingly, as soon as he was consecrated he appointed a council to be held at Lyons in France, and attended it in person in the month of May, A.D. 1274. The principal subjects discussed were the re-establishment he was projecting many other things in of the Christian dominion in the East, and the reunion of the Greek and Latin churches. This has commonly been reckoned the fourteenth general council; and it is remarkable for the new regulations it established for the election of Roman pontiffs and the celebrated provision which is still in force requiring the cardinal electors to be shut up in conclave. Neither did this pontiff, though of a milder disposition than many others, hesitate to repeat and inculcate that odious maxim of Gregory VII. that the pontiff is supreme lord of the world and especially of the Roman empire. For in the year 1271 he sent a menacing letter to the princes of Germany, admonishing them to elect an emperor forthwith, and without regarding the wishes or the claims of Alphonso, king of Castile, otherwise he would appoint a head of the empire himself. Accordingly the princes assembled and elected Rudolph I. of the house of Hapsburg. 14. Gregory X. died in the year 1276, and his three immediate successors were all chosen and died in the same year. Innocent V. previously Peter of Tarantaise, was a Dominican monk and bishop of Ostia. Hadrian V. was a Genoese, named Ottobonus and cardinal of St. Hadrian. John XXI. previously Peter, bishop of Tusculum, was a native of Portugal. The next pontiff who came to the chair in 1277 reigned longer. He was John Cajetan of the family of Ursini, a Roman and cardinal of St. Nicolaus, and assumed the title of Nicolaus III. As has been already observed, he greatly enlarged what is called the patrimony of St. Peter; and as his actions show, had formed other great projects which he would undoubtedly have The records of this election were published by Wadding, Annales Minorum, tom. iv. p. 330, &c. The acts of this council are in Harduin's Concilia, tom. vii. p. 666, &c.—Mur. conformity with the views of the pontiffs, when he was suddenly overtaken by death, A.D. 1285. His plans were prosecuted by his successor, James Savelli, who was elected in 1285 and took the name of Honorius IV. But his distressing disease in his joints [both in his hands and his feet], of which he died in 1287, prevented his attempting anything further. Nicolaus IV. previously Jerome d'Ascoli, bishop of Palæstrina, who attained to the pontifical chair in 1288 and died in 1292, was able to attend to the affairs both of the church and of the nations with more diligence and care. Hence he is represented in history sometimes as the arbiter in the disputes of sovereign princes, sometimes as the strenuous assertor of the rights and prerogatives of the church, and sometimes as the assiduous promoter of missionary labours among the Tartars and other nations of the East. But nothing lay nearer his heart than the restoration of the dominion of the Christians in Palestine, where their cause was nearly ruined. In this he laboured strenuously indeed but in vain, and death intercepted all his projects. 16. After his death the church was without a head till the third year, the cardinals disagreeing exceedingly among themselves. At length on the 5th of July, 1295, they unanimously chose an aged man greatly venerated for his sanctity, Peter surnamed De Murrone, from a mountain in which he led a solitary and very austere mode of life, who assumed the pontifical name of Cœlestine V. But as the austerity of his life tacitly censured the corrupt morals of the Romish court, and especially of the cardinals, and as he showed very plainly that he was more solicitous to advance the holiness of the church than its 9 A biography of this pope may be seen in Muratori's Scriptores Rerum Italicar. tom. iii. par. i. p. 612,~~ Schl. CHAP. II.] worldly grandeur, he was soon considered | 17. He was succeeded A.D. 1294 by Be- 18. Although Innocent III. in the Lateran council of 1215 had forbidden the introduction of any new religions, that is, new orders of monks," yet by Innocent himself and by the subsequent pontiffs many religious orders before unknown were not only tolerated, but approved and endowed with various privileges and honours. And considering the state of the church in this age, it is not strange that this law of Innocent was tacitly abrogated. For passing by other reasons, the opposers of the church, particularly the heretics, were everywhere multiplying; the secular clergy, as they were called, were more attentive to their private interests than to those of the church, and lived luxuriously upon the revenues provided by their predecessors; the old orders of monks had nearly all abandoned their original strictness, and disgusted the people by their shameful vices, their sloth, of progress and their licentiousness; and they all advanced rather than retarded the the heretics. The church therefore had occasion for new orders of servants, who should possess both the power and the disposition to conciliate the good-will of the people, and diminish the odium resting on the Romish church by the sanctity of their deportment, and to search out and harass the heretics by their sermons, their arguments, and their arms. 19. Some of the orders of monks which originated in this century are now extinct, while others are in a very flourishing state. Among those now extinct were the Humiliati, who originated anterior to the thirteenth century, but were first approved and subjected to the rule of St. Benedict by Innocent III. These were suppressed by Pius V. on account of their extremely corrupt morals, A.D. 1571.6 The Jacobites, mendicants who were established by Innocent III. but ceased to exist in this very century, subsequently I think to the 1 See Helyot, Hist. des Ordres, tome vi. p. 180. [This Pope wrote a history of his own life which, with his other works, is in the Biblioth. Max. Patrum. Lugd. Other biographies of him are to be tom. xxv. p. 765. found in Muratori's Scriptores Rerum Italicar. tom. ceding sections (from section 6 to sec. 17) the student iii. par. i. p. 653, &c. His life is also written by Pape- should refer to Gieseler, who has given a very carefully broch, Acta Sanctor. tom. iv. mens. Maii, p. 483.-digested summary of their several reigns, particularly Schl. of the first and the last of them, Innocent III. and Boniface VIII. and, as usual, has furnished the reader with many valuable quotations and references to authoSee Cunningham's transl. vol. ii. p. 200-250. Waddington has devoted chapter xx. of same period, commencing however from the death of his Hist. of the Church (vol. ii. p. 278-320) to the Innocent.-R. 2 A formal biography of him written by Rubeus, a Benedictine monk, was published at Rome, 1651, 4to, under the title of Bonifacius VIII. e Familia Cajeta-rities in the notes. norum principum Romanus Pontifex. [Another biography of him by Guido is extant in Muratori's Scriptores Rerum Ital. tom. iii. par. i. p. 641. The history of his contests with the king of France was written by De Puy, entitled Hist. du Différend de Philippe le Bel et de Boniface VIII. Paris, 1655, fol.; also by Baillet, Histoire des Demélez du Pape Boniface V111. avec Philippe le Bel, Paris, 1718, 12mo.- Schl. [For a summary account of this quarrel see Gifford's History of France, vol. i. p. 507, &c.-Mur. 3 In this account of the pontiffs I have chiefly followed Papebroch, Pagi, and Muratori in his Annales Italia, yet always consulting the original writers whom Muratori has collected in his Scriptores Rerum Italicar. On the history of the Popes contained in the pre 5 Acta Concilii Lateran. IV. canon xiii. :-"Ne nimia religionum diversitas gravem in ecclesia Del cætero novam religionem inveniat; sed quicunque confusionem inducat, firmiter prohibemus ne quis de voluerit ad religionem converti, unam de approbatis Similiter qui voluerit religiosam domum assumat. fundare de novo, regulam et institutionem accipiat de religionibus approbatis." See Harduin's Concilia, tom. vii. p. 31.- Mur. 6 Helyot's Hist. des Ordres, tome vi. p. 161. the Mohammedans a primary object, and to devote one-third part of their revenues to this purpose. Their rule of life formerly was austere, but by the indulgence of the pontiffs it is now rendered easy to be kept.8 council of Lyons.' The Vallischolares | thurini, because their church in Paris has who were collected not long after the com- for its tutelar saint St. Mathurinus, and mencement of the century by the Scho-likewise Brethren of the Redemption of lares, that is, by the four professors of Captives, because they are required to make theology at Paris, and hence were first the redemption of Christian captives from called Scholars; but afterwards from a certain valley in Campania to which they retired in the year 1234, their name was changed to Vallischolares [Scholars of the Valley]. This society was first governed by the rule of St. Augustine, but it is now united with the canons regular of St. Géneviève. The fraternity of the Blessed Virgin mother of Christ, which began to exist A.D. 1266 and was extinguished in the year 1274.3 The Knights of Faith and Charity, established in France to suppress public robberies, and approved by Gregory IX. The Eremite brethren of St. William, duke of Aquitaine. I pass over the Brethren of the Sack, the Bethlehemites, and several others. For scarcely any century was more fruitful than this in new sects of monks, living under various rules and regulations." 20. Among the new monastic sects which still exist were the Servants of the Everblessed Virgin, a fraternity founded in the year 1233 in Tuscany, by seven pious Florentines at the head of whom was Philip Benizi. This sect adopted indeed the rule of St. Augustine, but it was consecrated to the memory of the holy widowhood of the blessed Virgin, and therefore wore a black habit and had other peculiarities. The holy wars of the Christians in Palestine, in which many Christians became captives among the Mohammedans, produced near the close of the preceding century the order of Brethren of the Holy Trinity, which first acquired stability and permanence in this century. Its originators were John de Matha and Felix de Valois, two pious Frenchmen who led a solitary life at Cerfroy in the diocese of Meaux, where the principal house of the sect still exists. These monks were called Brethren of the Holy Trinity, because all their churches are dedicated to the Holy Trinity; also Ma 1 Matth. Paris, Historia Major, p. 161. Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 15; Acta Sanctor. mens. Februar. tom. ii. p. 482. 3 Sammarthanus, Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p. 653, &c. 4 Gallia Christiana, tom. i. Append. p. 165; Martene's Voyage Littér, de deux Bénédictins, tome ii. p. 23, &c. 5 Bolland, De Ordine Eremitar. S. Gulielmi, in the Acta Sanctor. Febr. tom. ii. p. 472, &c. 6 Matth. Paris, Historia Major, p. 815, ed. Watts. "Tot jam apparuerunt ordines in Anglia, ut ordinum confusio videretur inordinata." The same thing occurred in other countries of Europe in this age. Besides the common historians of the monastic orders who are not always accurate, see Paul the Florentine's Dialogus de Origine Ordinis Servorum, in Lami's Delicia Erudit. tom. i. p. 1-48. 21. But the sects now mentioned, and indeed all others, were far inferior in reputation, in privileges, in the number of members, and in other respects, to the Mendicant Orders (those which had no permanent revenues or possessions) which were first established in Europe during this century. This sort of monks had then become exceedingly necessary in the church. For the wealthy orders, withdrawn by their opulence from solicitude about religion and from obsequiousness to the pontiffs, and indulging themselves in idleness, voluptuousness, and all kinds of vice, could no longer be employed in any arduous enterprise; and the heretics were of course allowed to roam about securely and to gather congregations of followers. Besides, all the parties opposed to the church looked upon voluntary poverty as the primary virtue of a servant of Jesus Christ; they required their own teachers to live in poverty like the apostles; they reproached the church for its riches, and for the vices and profligacy of the clergy growing out of those riches; and by their commendation of poverty and contempt of riches, they chiefly gained the attention and good-will of the people. A class of people therefore was very much wanted, who by the austerity of their manners, their contempt of riches, and the external sanctity of their rules of life, might resemble such teachers as the heretics both commended and exhibited, and whom neither their worldly interests and pleasures nor the fear of princes and nobles could induce to neglect their duties to the church and to the pontiff. The first to discern this was Innocent III. whose partiality for the orders professing poverty 8 Besides Helyot and the others, see Toussaint du Plessis, Hist. de l'Eglise de Meaux, tome i. p. 172 and 566, &c.; Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 523, &c.; Wood's Antiq. Oron. tom. i. p. 133, &c. In ancient writers this sect is called the Order of Asses, because their rule requires the brethren to ride on asses and forbids their using horses. See Du Fresne's Notes on Joinville's Life of St. Lewis, p. 81, &c. But by the allowance of the pontiff's they may at the present day use horses if they have occasion, and they do use them. A similar order was instituted in Spain A.D. 1228, by Paul Nolasco, and called the Order of St. Mary for the Ransoming of Captives. See the Acta Sanctor. Januarii, tom. ii. p. 980, &c. |