turned to Paris, and being deprived of the revenues of | his archdeaconry he appealed to the Pope A.D. 1144, who invited him to Rome and made him a cardinal. He died A.D. 1150. His only work which has reached us is Sententiæ de Trinitate. It is a system of theology, but unlike Peter Lombard's Sentences, it is not a mere compilation from the fathers but a biblical and argu

mentative treatise, in which he shows himself a pro

found and orthodox divine. It was published by Mathoud, Paris, 1655, fol.

Rodulphus Ardens, chaplain to William IV. duke of Aquitain, A.D. 1101. He left sermons on the lessons for the year, published at Cologne, 1604, 2 vols. 8vo. Rodulph, abbot of St. Trudo near Laon, about A.D. 1120. He wrote Chronicon Monasterii Sti Trudonis,

published by D'Achery, Spicileg. tom. vii; also a life of St. Lietbert, bishop of Cambray-ibid.

Roger de Hoveden, a native of York, of illustrious II. and then chief professor of theology at Oxford; flourished A.D. 1198, author of Annales Anglicani, from A.D. 731 (where Beda ends) to A.D. 1202; published by Saville, Historici Anglici, Lond. 1595, foi. and Francf. 1601.

English descent, one of the household of king Henry

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

1. So many causes conspired to debase religion and to tarnish and obscure its lustre, arising out of the numberless inventions of human ingenuity, that it may seem strange it was not wholly destroyed. In the first place, the Roman pontiffs would have nothing taught which militated against their arrogated supremacy; and therefore they required Christianity to be so explained and modified, as to support that form of the church which their predecessors had marked out. Those who would not obey their laws, or showed that they regarded the holy scriptures more than the authority of the Romish see, were cruelly destroyed with fire and sword. In the next place the priests and monks, finding the earliest times to A.D. 1186 is written in a florid it to be their interest that the people style and is highly esteemed; best edited by Stepha- should be entirely ignorant and undiscernSigebertus Gemblacensis, a monk and writer at ing, amused them with a species of theatric Gemblours A.D. 1101, a partisan of the emperor Henry shows, and placed all religion in empty ceIV. in his contests with the pope. He wrote a Chro-remonies, corporeal austerities and inflic printed among the Scriptores Germanici, Francf. 1585, tions, and reverence for the clergy. The fol. and by Miræus, Antw. 1608, also De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis, Epistola pro Ecclesiis Leodiensi et Cameracensi, ado. Ep. Paschalis Papa, a life of Sigebert king of France, and some lives of saints. He died

Saxo Grammaticus, a Dane, born of an honourable family in Zeeland, dean of the cathedral of Roschild, and much esteemed by Absalom, archbishop of Lund, who sent him to Paris on business and prompted him

to write his History of Denmark. He flourished A.D. 1170, and died A.D. 1204. His Historia Danica from

nius, Sora, 1644, fol.

nicle from A.D. 381, where Jerome ends, to A.D. 1112;

A.D. 1113.

Simeon, an Englishman educated at Oxford, where he taught philosophy and theology. Afterwards he became a Benedictine monk and precentor in the cathedral of Durham. Here he examined carefully the remains of the library which the Danes had much injured; and collecting materials from every quarter became an author. He flourished A.D. 1130, and wrote a history of the church of Durham from A.D. 635 to 1096, which another hand continued to A.D. 1154, a tract concerning the archbishops of York, another on the siege of Durham, and a history of the English and Danish kings from A.D. 730 to 1130, which John of Hexham continued to 1155, and from which Roger Hoveden took nearly the whole of his history. These works of Simeon were published by Twisden in his Scriptores Decem Anglici.

Stephen Harding, an English monk of Sherburn. He travelled in Scotland, France, and Italy; became first a Benedictine, then a Cistercian in France, where he was made abbot A.D. 1109, and died A.D. 1134. He composed regulations for the Cistercians, and some other monastic pieces.

Stephen I. bishop of Augsburg A.D. 1113-1129, and then a monk of Cluny. He wrote a tract Dé Sacramento Altaris, &c. in the Biblioth. Patr. tom. xx. p. 1872.

Stephen, a monk and abbot of Orleans and of Paris, one of the council of regents during the crusade of Philip Augustus, A.D. 1190, and bishop of Tournay, A.D. 1192-1202. He wrote between A.D. 1163 and the time of his death two hundred and seventy-eight epistles, published, Paris, 1682, 8vo; also thirty-one sermons chiefly on the festivals, and a commentary on the Decretum of Gratian, which are still in manuscript.

Theodoric, abbot of St. Trudo in the diocese of Laon, who died in exile at Ghent A.D. 1107. He wrote the life of St. Trudo, and of four or five other saints.

Urban II. pope A.D. 1185-1187, has left us five epistles.

of England from the first arrival of the Saxons, A.D. 449, to the twentieth year of Henry I. A.D. 1127; a continuation of it to A.D. 1143, and a history of the English bishops from the arrival of Augustine to his own times. These works were collected and published by Saville, Lond. 1596, fol. and Francf. 1601. His life of St. Aldhelm, bishop of Sherburn, is in Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. sæcul. i. p. i. Some other works of this celebrated English historian are said to exist still in manuscript.

In the

William of Tyre. Whether born in France, Germany, or Palestine, he is supposed to have been related to the kings of Jerusalem. He was made archdeacon of Tyre A.D. 1167; soon after was sent on business to Constantinople, in 1169 undertook a journey to Europe, on his return was tutor to Balduin the prince, and A.D. 1174, archbishop of Tyre year 1178 he was at the council of the Lateran, and he spent some months at Constantinople. In 1138 Jerusalem being taken by the Saracens, he went to Europe to solicit aid from the kings of England and France. He opposed the election of Heraclius to the bishopric of Jerusalem, who compassed his death by poison, but in what year is unknown. He wrote a history of the crusades to Palestine, from A.D. 1093 to the year 1180, very highly esteemed, and published, Basil, 1549 and 1660, and by Bongarsius, Gesta Dei per Francos, tom. i. p. 625.

William Neubergensis or Neubrigensis, surnamed Parvus, born at Bridlington in Yorkshire, A.D. 1136, a regular Augustinian canon in the monastery of Bridlington, where he died A.D. 1208, aged 72. He wrote, in a good Latin style, De Rebus Anglicis sui Temporis, from .D. 1066 to the year 1197; best edited by Picard, Paris, 1610, 8vo.

Zacharias, bishop of Chrysopolis or a Præmonstratensian monk of St. Martin of Tours, A.D. 1157. He wrote four books of commentaries on the Mororéσσapov, or Harmony of the four Gospels by Ammonius of Alexandria, published, Cologne, 1535, fol. and in the Biblioth. Patrum, tom. xix.

[For further information on those of the above writers who belong to Britain, see Wright's Biogr. Britan. Liter. Anglo-Norman period; and on those who wrote Chronicles, in the Introduction to the first volume of Lappenberg's Geschichte r. England, Thorpe's trans).

William of Malmesbury was a native of Somersetshire, a Benedictine monk, and librarian and preceptor of the monastery of Malmesbury, where he flourished from 1130 to 1143. He wrote a history of the kings R.

scholastic doctors united the precepts of gard, abbess of Bingen, and Elizabeth, the dialecticians with the opinions of the abbess of Schönaugen.* fathers to constitute a standard of truth; and in place of explaining the principles of revealed religion, they destroyed them altogether. Their opponents, the mystics, maintained that the soul of one truly pious does not move spontaneously, but by a divine impulse; and thus they did not merely set bounds to human ability but abolished it entirely.

3. The rulers of the church basely abused this ignorance and superstition of the people for their own emolument, or to extort money; and each order of the clergy had its own peculiar artifices for fleecing the people of their property. The bishops when they had occasion to raise money, either for good and laudable or for base and criminal objects, allowed transgressors 2. Hence instead of religion, astonishing to buy off the penalties enjoined by the superstition and ignorance reigned every-canons, by advancing money for certain rewhere among the people. Most persons ligious purposes, that is, they published placed more reliance upon relics, generally indulgences; and what mighty enterprises false or at least dubious and uncertain,. and expensive works were accomplished in than upon Christ and his merits, or upon this century by means of indulgences, is prayers founded on his mediation. Those known to all. The abbots and the monks who were able themselves to build churches who had not this power, resorted to other or to contribute money to their erection means for raising money. They travelled and repair, esteemed themselves very happy about the villages and through provinces, and the favourites of heaven; and they carrying in solemn procession the carcases whose poverty restrained them from doing and relics of holy men, which they allowed so, cheerfully submitted to work like beasts the people to see, to handle, and to kiss, in transporting stones and drawing carts, by paying for the privilege. In this way whenever a church was to be built; and they often amassed as great gains as the they expected eternal salvation for these bishops by their indulgences. voluntary hardships.2 Departed saints had more supplicants than God and the Saviour of men; nor was there much inquiry, as there was in after times, how they knew that glorified spirits heard and understood the prayers of their suppliants. For the old notion, derived by the Christians from the pagans, that the celestials often descend to this lower world and linger about the places to which in their lifetime they were attached, prevailed universally, until the scholastic doctors gave this subject a particular discussion. If any man or woman, either from a disordered state of mind or from a design to deceive, laid claim to divine revelations, the people at large unhesitatingly believed that God himself had conversed with them in order to instruct the world. This is manifest from the examples of the celebrated German prophetesses, Hilde- 529, 554. [See the notice of these prophetesses in the

1 See Guibert of Nogent's three books, De Pignoribus (thus they styled relics) Sanctorum, in his works, published by D'Achery, p. 327, &c. where this discerning man assails the superstition of his age.

See the tract of the abbot Haymo on this very custom, annexed by Mabillon to the sixth volume of his Annales Benedictini; and also those Annales, p. 392,

&c.

3 That I may not be thought to give a false representation, I will quote a very explicit passage from the life of St. Altmann, bishop of Passau, in Tengnagel's Collectio Veter. Monument, p. 41; "Vos licet, Sancti Domini, somno vestro requiescatis-haud tamen crediderim, spiritus vestros deesse locis, que viventes tanta devotione construxistis et dilexistis. Credo vos adesse cunctis illic degentibus, astare videlicet orantibus, succurrere laborantibus, et vota singulorum in conspectu divinæ majestatis promovere.

4. The Roman pontiffs, perceiving what advantages the inferior bishops derived from their indulgences, concluded that the power of the bishops to remit ecclesiastical penalties ought to be circumscribed, and the prerogative be almost wholly transferred to the Roman see. Accordingly they began, as the necessities or convenience of the church or their own interests required, to publish not merely the common and ordinary but likewise the entire and absolute, or the plenary remission of all finite or temporal penalties; and they cancelled not only the punishments which the canons and human tribunals inflict, but also those to be endured after death, which the bishops had never attempted to set aside. They

4 See Mabillon's Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 431, note to the preceding chapter, p. 414; also Neander, Heilige Bernard und sein Zeitalter, p. 210, &c. 300, &c.- Mur.

5 Stephanus Obazinensis; in Baluze, Miscellanea, tom. iv. p. 130; Mabillon, Annales Bened. tom. vi. p. 535, &c.

6 Innumerable examples of this mode of extorting money may be collected from the records of this age. See the Chronicon Centulense, in D'Achery's Spicilegium, tom. ii. p. 354; the life of St. Romana, ibid. p. 137; Mabillon, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 342, 644; Acta Sanctor. Mensis Maii, tom. vii. p. 533, in the acts of St. Marculus, where a long journey of such relics is described; Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. tom. iv. p. 519, 520, and tom. ii. p. 732.

7 Morin, De Administratione Sacramenti Pœnitentiæ, lib. x. cap. 10, 21, 22, p. 769, &c.; Simon, Biblioth. Critique, tome iii.chap.xxxiii. p. 371; Mabillon, Preface to the 5th century of his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bend. p. lxxi. &c. I designedly refer to none of the Protes tant writers.

first resorted to this power for the sake of labours of Peter Lombard, Gilbert de la promoting the crusades, and were sparing Porrée, and Abelard, on the Psalms of in the use of it; but afterwards they ex- David and the Epistles of Paul. Nor is erted it for objects of far less importance higher commendation due to the best Latin and of various kinds, and very often merely expositors of nearly the whole Bible in this for their private emolument. Upon the century; such as Gislebert [or Gilbert], introduction of this new policy, the ancient | bishop of London, called the Universal system of canonical and ecclesiastical pen-on account of the extent of his erudition,3 ances was wholly subverted; and the books and Herveus, a very laborious Benedictine of canons and the penitentials being laid monk. Somewhat superior to the rest of aside, transgressors were no longer under the Latins was Rupert of Duytz, who exrestraints. To support this proceeding of pounded various books of the scriptures; the pontiffs an unheard-of doctrine was de- and with him may be coupled Anselm of vised in this century, and improved and Laon, who composed or rather compiled a polished in the following century by St. Glossa, as it was called, on the sacred Thomas; namely, that there is an immense books. Those who chose not to tread in treasury of good works which holy men the steps of the ancients and ventured to have performed over and above what duty try the powers of their own genius, disrerequired; and that the Roman pontiff is garding simplicity, searched after mysteries the keeper and the distributor of this trea- of every sort in the sacred pages. And in sure, so that he is able, out of this inex- this species of interpretation, none exhaustible fund, to give and transfer to every celled more than the mystic doctors as they one such an amount of good works as his are called; for they explained the whole necessities require, or as will suffice to Bible in conformity with the visions of avert the punishment of his sins. This their own minds, and the ideal systems of miserable and pernicious fiction, it is to their own formation. Moreover, those 'nbe lamented, is still retained and defended. terpreters who made dialectics and philo5. This century abounded in expositors sophy their study, pursued the same course of the holy scriptures, if one may judge in their expositions of the scriptures. This from the multitude of works professedly mode of interpretation may be seen disof this character; but if we estimate them tinctly in Hugo of St. Victor's Allegoriby their skill and ability there were almost cal Explanations of both Testaments, in none at all. For very few inquired after Richard of St. Victor's Mystical Ark, in the literal sense of the scriptures; and William of Nogent's Mystical Commeneven these were destitute of the requisite taries on Obadiah, Hosea, and Amos, and means of ascertaining it. Both the Greeks in some others. and the Latins were governed entirely by the authority of the fathers, and compiled from their writings, without discrimination or care, whatever seemed to throw light on the inspired volumes. The reader may inspect among the Greeks, Euthymius Zigabenus' exposition of the Psalms, the Gospels, and the Epistles, though he offers some remarks of his own which are not contemptible; and among the Latins, the

2 One considerable cause of this incompetence was,

that the monks, among whom nearly all the learning of the age was to be found, held it to be unlawful to learn Hebrew from Jewish teachers. A certain monk (as we learn from the statutes of the Cistercians A.. 1198, no. 24 in Martene's Thesaur. Nov. Anecdot. tom. iv. p. 1292) had learned Hebrew from a Jew; and the abbot of Clairvaux was directed to investigate the matter and to bring the monk to punishment. The French Benedictines, in their Hist. Littér, de la France, tome ix. can find among the vast multitude of clergymen who made pilgrimages to Palestine, only three persons who in that way acquired a knowledge of the Arabic and Greek; namely, William of Tyre, one Philip, and the Englishman Adelard. See Semler's Hist. Eccles. Selecta Cap. tom. iii. p. 161.-- Schl.

6. The most distinguished teachers of theology resided at Paris; and, of course, students in theology from all parts of Europe resorted to Paris, in order to attend the lectures of theologians who taught there. The professors of theology in France were divided into several sects. One sect was that of the ancient theologists, who supported their religious tenets simply by the declarations of holy Scripture and by the opinions of the fathers and the decisions of councils, and very rarely introduced anything of human reasoning. Such in this century were St. Bernard, Peter the Chanter, Gualter of St. Victor, and others, who strenuously contended against the philosophic theologians. Not totally distinct from this sect was that which after

3 Concerning him, see Le Bœuf, Mémoires concernant Hist. d'Auxerre, tome ii. p. 486. [He wrote notes on the Old and New Testaments, and commentaries on certain books, none of which were ever published.Schl.

4 An ample account of him is given by Liron, Singu larites Historiq. et Littér tome iii. p. 29, &c. Add Mabillon, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 477, 719.

5 His Prologue on Obadiah was published by Mabillon. Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 637, &c.

quately expressed in the phraseology of dialectics, they gave occasion for idle and vainglorious disputants to invent new terms, and to perplex themselves and others with enigmatical trifles.

wards bore the name of the Positive and plexed the plainest truths, wearied both the Sententiarii; for these, following the themselves and others with useless and example of Anselm of Canterbury, Lan- abstruse speculations, so argued on both franc, Hildebert, and others of the pre-sides of the most important questions as to ceding century, supported religious doc-leave them undecided; and as there were trines principally by citations from Scrip- many things in religion which were inadeture and the writings of the fathers; but had recourse to reason and philosophy, especially for solving difficulties and refuting objections, in which some of them were more moderate and cautious, and others less so. The first in this century who thus explained the principles of religion systematically, is said to be Hugo of St. Victor, who was succeeded by many others. But the first rank in this species of labour belongs to Peter Lombard, or Peter the Italian of Lombardy and archbishop of Paris, whose four books of sentences, on their appearance in the year 1162,' at once acquired such authority that all the doctors began to expound them. And some tell us that all the doctors of much note, except | Henry of Ghent and a few others, commented upon this Master of the Sentences, as Lombard was called, on account of this work.2

7. These Sententarii, as they were called, though not without faults nor entirely free from vain and futile speculations, yet resorted to dialectical subtleties with moderation, and did not force the doctrines of revelation to yield submission to human reason. But contemporary with them arose another and more daring sect of theologians, who had no hesitation to apply the terms and distinctions of the dialecticians to the truths taught by revelation, and to investigate the nature and relations of those truths by the principles of logic. The author of this mode of treating theology, which was afterwards called the scholastic because it prevailed in nearly all the schools, was Peter Abelard, a man of great acutewho was first a canon and a celebrated teacher as well of philosophy as of theology, and afterwards a monk and abbot of Ruys.3 Eager for the applause which he had obtained, others without number in France, England, and Italy, pursued the same course. In this way the peaceful religion of Jesus was soon converted into the science of wrangling. For these men did not explain anything, but by multiplying divisions and distinctions, obscured and per

ness,

1 Lindenbrog's Scriptores Rerum Septentrion. p. 25. A host of these interpreters are exhibited by Possevin, Biblioth. Selecta, tom. i. lib. iii. cap. xiv. p. 242. [For a notice of Peter Lombard, and his Books of the Sentences, see note 2, p. 412.- Mur.

3 This is acknowledged by Abelard himself: Epist. i. chap. ix. Opp. p. 20. See also Launoi, De Scholis Caroli Magni, cap. lix. Opp. tom. iv. p. 67.

8. From this time therefore the teachers of theology began to be divided into two classes; the biblical, who were called the ancient and also Dogmatici and Positivi; and the scholastic, who were called the Sententarii and also the new. The former interpreted the sacred volume in their schools, though for the most part miserably, and confirmed them by the testimonies of Scripture and tradition, without calling reason and philosophy to their aid. The latter did nothing but explain the Master of the Sentences or Lombard; and they brought all the doctrines of faith, as well as the principles and precepts of practical religion, under the dominion of philosophy, and involved them in endless perplexities." And as these philosophical or scholastic theologians were deemed superior to the others in acumen and ingenuity, young men admired them and listened to them with the greatest attention; whereas the biblical doctors or those of the sacred page, as they were called, had very few and sometimes no pupils. This state of things prevailed generally in the schools of Europe down to the time of Luther.

6

9. But before these dialectical and metaphysical doctors could obtain such an

4 See Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 201, &c. p. 583, &c.; Wood, Antiq. Oxon. tom. i. p. 58; Launoi, De Varia Aristotelis Fortuna in Acad. Paris. cap. iii. p. 187, &c. ed. Elswich, Witemb. 1720, 8vo.

5 See Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 657, &c.

Roger Bacon, in his larger work addressed to the Roman pontiff, Clement IV. (published from the manuscript by Sam. Jebb, Lond. 1733, fol.) par. ii. chap. iv. p. 29, says: "The Bachelor, who lectures or the text (of Scripture), gives place to the lecturer u noured by all. For he who lectures on the sentences the Sentences, who is everywhere preferred and bohas the best hour for reading, according to his choice, he has also an associate and a chamber among the religious; but he who lectures on the Bible wants these, and begs for such an hour to read, as shail please the lecturer on the Sentences.

Also the man who lectures on the Sentences disputes everywhere, and is accounted a Master; but the other who lectures on the text cannot dispute, as was exemplified this year at Bologna and in many other places, which is absurd. It is therefore manifest that the text is subordinate in this faculty (theology) to the one dominant Summa." These words clearly show what estimation was then put upon the sacred volume, and what authority philosophical theology enjoyed. More remarks follow in Bacon well worth reading. He lived in the thirteenth

century.

ascendency in the schools, they had to pass in 1121, and before that of Sens in 1140, through many perils, contests, and disasters. accused him of many and very great errors, For they were opposed on the one hand by and at last procured his condemnation. the ancient divines, and on the other by Abelard was said to have greatly corrupted the mystics, who supposed true wisdom is the doctrine of three persons in the Godto be acquired not by reasoning but by head, to have attacked the majesty of the silence and contemplation, and to be drawn Holy Spirit, to have spoken dishonourafrom the inmost recesses of the soul. The bly of the offices of Christ and of the old contest therefore between faith and union of the two natures in him, to have reason which had long been dormant among denied the doctrine of divine grace, in the Latins, was now revived, and produced short, to have nearly subverted all religreat commotions everywhere. Of the pa-gion. On some points undoubtedly Abetrons of the old theology, those who most lard expressed himself unsuitably and imviolently assailed the scholastics were Gui- properly, and his subtlety was not always bert of Nogent, Peter Cellensis, Peter without fault; but it is also manifest that Cantor or the Precentor of Paris, and others; but especially Gualter of St. Victor in his four books against the four labyrinths of France and the new heretics. Of the mystics, Joachim, abbot of Flora, Richard of St. Victor, and others, inveighed against them, and especially against Lombard, notwithstanding he was much more moderate than the true and proper scholastics. The contention and discord were so great that the sovereign pontiff, Alexander III. in a very numerous and solemn convention, A.D. 1164, condemned this immoderate licentiousness of disputing on sacred subjects; and in the year 1179 he censured and disapproved of some things in the writings even of Lombard."

10. But there was no more potent adversary of the dialectic theologians in this century than St. Bernard, whose zeal was immense, and his influence equal to his zeal. He therefore contended against them not only with words but with deeds, with ecclesiastical councils, and positive enactments. Bitter experience of this was felt by Peter Abelard, at that time the chief of the dialectic party, and certainly a man of far more learning and acuteness than St. Bernard, though much inferior to him in influence. Bernard prosecuted him before the council of Soissons

Tropologia in Oseam; Opp. p. 203.
Opuscula, p. 277, 399, ed. Benedict.

3 In his Verbum Abreviatum, sive Summa; published at Mons, 1639, 4to, by Galopin, cap. iii. p. 6. 7.

By the four Labyrinths of France, he means Abelard, Gilbert de la Porrée, Lombard, and Peter of Poictiers, who were the principal dialectic theologians of this century. See, respecting this work which was never published, Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 619-659.

5 Among his writings is a book against Lombard, De Unitate seu Essentia SS. Trinitatis, which was condemned in the fourth Lateran council, A.D. 1215. See the Hist. de l' Abbé Joachim, surnommé le Prophète; Paris, 1745, 2 vols. 12mo; and Fabricius, Hist. medice et infim. Lat. lib. ix. p. 107.-Schl.

6 Pagi, Critica in Baronium, tom. iv. ad ann. 1164, no. xxi, p. 615.

7 Matth. Paris, Historia Major, p. 115; Bulæus, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 402.

St. Bernard, wholly ignorant of philosophy and distinguished rather for genius. than for intellect, did not understand some of Abelard's propositions, and others of them he designedly perverted. For this good man used no moderation either in praising or in censuring.

9

11. Nearly the same fate attended Gilbert de la Porrée, who after teaching philosophy and theology with much reputation, at Paris and elsewhere, was made bishop of Poictiers. For his two archdeacons, Arnald and Calo, who had been trained in the schools of the ancient theologians, having heard him speak too metaphysically respecting the divine nature, accused him of blasphemy before Eugene III. the pontiff, then in France; and to be more sure of success, they engaged St. Bernard on their side. Bernard, as was usual with him, prosecuted this business before the pontiff with the greatest vehemence, first in the council of Paris A.D. 1147, and then in that of Rheims in the following year. In the latter council, Gilbert in order to end the contest, submitted his opinions to the judgment of the council and the pope. All the errors charged upon Gilbert indicate too great fondness for nice distinctions, and a disposition to

8 See Bayle, Dictionnaire, artic. Abelard, p. 18; Gervais, Vie d'Abelard et de Heloise; Mabillon, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 63, 84, 324. 395; Martene, Thesaurus Anecdotor. tom. v. p. 1139, and numerous others.

9 See Gervais, Vie d'Abelard, tome ii. p. 162; Le Clerc, Biblioth. Ancienne et Moderne, tome ix. p. 352, &c.; Petavius, Dogmata Theol. tom. i. lib. v. c. 6, p. 217, &c. and St. Bernard himself in many parts of his works, which the index will point out. At last, after numerous vexations and sufferings, of which he himself has left a history, Abelard died a monk of Cluny, A.D. 1142. He was a great man and worthy of a better age, and of better fortune. [See note 3, p. 411. -Mur. [In Neander's Der heilige Bernard u, sein Zeitalter, p. 217 and 305, &c. the student will find a pretty full account of Abelard's theological views and of Bernard's controversy with him, marked by al the originality and profound philosophical acumen characteristic of that eminent writer. See Life and Times of St. Bernard, Wrench's transl. p. 124-167 -R.