tered the affairs of the Church; but these teachers, in process of time, assumed a loftier spirit, and, trampling on the rights of the people, they claimed sovereign power both in sacred and secular affairs. At last things gradually came to this, that one person held supreme power over the whole Church, or at least affected to hold it. Among these governors and guides of the Church, some obtained by their writings pre-eminent fame and influence; and as these were by after ages regarded as oracles and blindly followed, they ought to rank among the governors of the Church, whether they held offices in it or not. 8. The history of the laws by which this religious society was governed naturally follows the history of its ministers. The laws peculiar to the Christian community are of two kinds. Some are divine, proceeding from God himself. These are written in those books which Christians very properly believe to be divinely inspired. Others are human, or are enactments by the rulers of the community. The former are usually called doctrines, and are divided into two species; namely, doctrines of faith, which are addressed to the understanding; and moral doctrines, which address the heart or will. 9. In the history of these laws or doctrines, it should be our first inquiry, in what estimation has the sacred volume been held from age to age, and how was it interpreted? For, in every period, the state of religion among Christians has depended on the reverence paid to the sacred volume and on the manner of expounding it. We should next inquire how these divine instructions and laws were treated-in what manner they were inculcated and explained -defended against gainsayers or debased and corrupted. The last inquiry is, how far Christians were obedient to these divine laws, or how they lived; and what measures were taken by the rulers of the Church to restrain the licentiousness of transgres sors. 10. The human laws of which we speak are prescriptions relating to the external worship of God, or religious rites, whether derived from custom or from positive enactment. Rites either directly appertain to religion or indirectly refer to it. The former embrace the whole exterior of religious worship, both public and private; the latter include every thing, except direct worship, that is accounted religious and proper. This part of religious history is very extensive; partly from the variety and partly from the frequent changes in ceremonies. A concise history can therefore only touch upon the subject without descending into details. 11. As in civil republics wars and insurrections sometimes break out; so in the Christian republic serious commotions have often arisen on account of both doctrines and rites. The leaders and authors of these seditions are called heretics; and the opinions for which they separated from other Christians are called heresies. The history of these commotions, or heresies, should be fully detailed. This labour, if wisely expended and with impartiality, will well repay the toil; but it is arduous and difficult. For the leaders of these parties have been treated with much injustice, and their doctrines are misrepresented; nor is it easy to come at the truth in the midst of so much darkness, since most of the writings of those called heretics are now lost. Those, therefore, who approach this part of Church history should exclude everything invidious from the name heretic, and should consider it as used in its more general sense, to denote those who were the occasion, whether by their own or others' fault, of divisions and contests among Christians.' 12. In treating of both the external and the internal history of the Church, the writer who would be useful must trace events to their The greater number of the topics enumerated in this section and the preceding ones (6-11) have been treated of in separate works, to which the student of ecclesiastical history should refer for fuller information than can be given in general histories: thus, for the internal government, discipline, and worship of the early Church, he must consult Bingham's Ori gines Ecclesiastica, in his Works. London, 1840, 9 vols. 8vo; abridged by Blackamore, in his Summary of Christ. Antiquities. London, 1722, 2 vols. 8vo; Coleman's Antiquities of the Christian Church, in Ward's Library. London, 1843, taken chiefly from Augusti's Handbuch der Christ. Archäologie. Ebend. 1836-8, 3 vols. an abridgment by the author from his larger work, entitled, Denkwürdigkeiten aus der Christ. Archäologie. Leip. 1817-31, 12 vols. 8vo; Riddel's Manual of Christian Antiquities. London, 1839; also taken from Augusti, but adapted to the state of opinion in the Church of England. For the history of the still have recourse to German writers, as we have not ethical and doctrinal principles of Christianity, we must as yet any works in Britain on these important branches of Ecclesiastical History. The principal modern writers are, on Ethics, Staudlin and De Wette; and on doctrines, Münscher, Engelhardt, Ruperti, and Hagenbach. A translation of Hagenbach's valuable Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. Leip. 1840-1, 3 vols. 8vo, is now in course of publication by Clark of Edinburgh, in his Foreign Theological Library, in the first vol. of which (pages 25-30) the student will find extended references to the best works on these topics. The history of heresies, extending to the 8th century, is most fully given by the younger Walch, in his Vollständige Historie der Ketzerein. Leip. 1762-85, 11 vols. 8vo. There are also numerous works, referred to in subsequent notes on particular heresies, and several on those of certain periods; such as Ittig, De Haresiarchis primi et secundi a Christo nato seculi, 2d Edition. Leip. 1703, 4to; Burton's Inquiry into the Heresies of the Apostolic Age. Oxford, 1829, 8vo, with the various works mentioned by him in the Introduction.-R causes; that is, he must tell us not only what happened but likewise how and why. He who narrates the naked facts only enriches our memory and amuses us; but he who at the same time states the operative causes of events profits us, for he both strengthens our judgment and increases our wisdom. Yet it must be confessed that caution is here necessary, lest we fabricate causes and palm our own waking dreams upon men long since dead. 13. In exploring the causes of events, besides access to the testimony of the leading men and the history of the times, a good knowledge of human nature is requisite. The historian who understands the human character, the propensities and powers, the passions and weaknesses of man, will readily discover the causes of many things attempted or done in former times. No less important is it to be acquainted with the education and the opinions of the persons we treat of; for men commonly regard as praiseworthy and correct whatever accords with the views and practices of their ancestors. 14. In the external history, an historian should consider the civil state of the countries in which the Christian religion was either approved or rejected, and also their religious state, that is, the opinions of the people concerning the Deity and divine worship. For it will not be difficult to determine why the Church was now prosperous and now in trouble, if we know what was the form of government, what the character of the rulers, and what the prevailing religion at the time. 15. To dispel obscurities in the internal history, nothing is more conducive than a knowledge of the history of learning, and especially of philosophy. For, most unfortunately, human learning and philosophy have in every age been allowed more influence, in regard to revealed religion, than was proper, considering the natures of the two things. Also a good knowledge of the civil government and of the ancient superstitions of different countries, is useful to the same end; for through the prudence or, shall I say, the indiscretion of the presiding authorities, many parts of the discipline and worship of the church have been shaped after the pattern of the ancient religions; and no little deference has been paid to the pleasure of sovereigns and to human laws, in regulating the church of God.' 1 An excellent specimen of what may be accomplished by the ecclesiastical historian, in accordance with the principles laid down in these sections (12-15) Is afforded by Milman's History of Christianity to the 16. From what sources all this knowledge must be drawn is quite obvious; namely, froin the writers of every age who have treated of Christian affairs, and especially from those contemporary with the events; for on testimonies or authorities is laid the basis of all true history. Yet we ought not to disregard those who from these original sources have compiled histories and annals; for to refuse proffered assistance and despise the labours of those who have attempted, before us, to throw light on obscure subjects, is mere folly. 17. From all this it will be easy to determine the essential qualifications of a good ecclesiastical historian. He must have no moderate acquaintance with human affairs in general; his learning must be extensive, his mind sagacious and accustomed to reason, his memory faithful, and his judgment sound and matured by long exercise. In his disposition and temperament he must be patient of labour, persevering, inflexible in his love of truth and justice, and free from every prejudice. 18. Persons who attempt this species of writing are liable to prejudice, especially from three sources; namely, times, persons, and opinions. First, the times in which we live often have such ascendency over us that we judge of past ages by our own; we conclude that because a particular thing neither does nor can take place in our age, therefore it neither did nor could take place in former times. Secondly, the persons with whose testimony we are concerned, especially if for ages they have been highly revered for their holiness or their virtues, acquire such an authority with us as dazzles and deceives us. And, thirdly, our partialities for those opinions and doctrines which we ourselves embrace often so fetter Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire. Lond. 1810, 3 vols. 8vo, which, though in some respects defective and objectionable, is on the whole a most valuable addition to our historical literature.-R. 2 To acquaint us with all the writers on ecclesiastical history was the professed object of Sluterus in his Propylæum historic Christiana. Luneb. 1696, 4to; and of Sagittarius, Introductio in historiam eccles. singu lasque ejus partes, especially vol. 1st. [Jena, 1718, 2 vols. 4to. Ed. Schmidt. Since Mosheim wrote, several important works have appeared expressly on this subject; but the fullest and most satisfactory account of writers on ecclesiastical history, both general and special, is to be found in the 3d volume of the elder 8vo, one of the many valuable works for which we are indebted to the singular industry and perseverance of German compilers. What Danz has done for the Bibliotheca Patristica of this author, by continuing it to the present time, is now much needed for an enlarged Walch's Bibliotheca Theologica selecta. Jena, 1762, 4 vols. edition of this 3d volume. In the meantime, the student will find a few references to recent writers in Dowling's Introduction to the Critical Study of Eccles. History. Lond. 1838, 8vo, and a full catalogue in Lowndes's British Librarian, col. 1245, &c. a valuable compilation, though only a small portion has been yet published.-R. our minds that we unconsciously pervert study derive great assistance in acquiring the truth in regard to facts. Now from that practical wisdom which they so much this triple bondage the mind must as far need. Here, the numerous mistakes of as possible be set free. even great men warn them what to shun, if they would not embroil the Christian Church; there, many illustrious examples of noble and successful effort are patterns for their imitation. And for combating errors, both those inveterate by age and those of more recent growth, nothing, except the holy Scriptures and sound reason, can be compared with this kind of history. I pass over other advantages which will be found by experience to result from this study; nor will I mention its subserviency to other branches of knowledge, particularly that of jurisprudence.1 19. But from this rule and from others equally obvious and important, how widely ecclesiastical historians have departed, in all ages, is too well known. For not to mention the many who think themselves great historians if they have a good memory, and to pass by those also who are governed more by their private interests than by the love of truth, there are very few writers whom neither the sect to which they belong, nor the venerated names of some ancient authors, nor the influence of the age in which they live, can disarm and divert from the truth. In the present age 22. The two parts of Church history, the more especially, the spirit of the times and external and the internal, require an arthe prejudice of opinions have incredible rangement or plan of teaching suited to influence. Hence the following arguments, each. The external history, being a long so often occurring in the writings of learned and continued narrative extending through men: These are true sentiments; therefore many centuries, requires a distribution into we must suppose the ancient Christians certain intervals of time, for the benefit embraced them. This is correct practice, of the understanding and memory of the according to Christ's precepts; therefore reader, and the preservation of order. Vadoubtless the earlier Christians so lived.rious divisions of time may be adopted. I This does not now take place; therefore it did not in ancient times. 20. Ecclesiastical history, if written by persons free from these and other faults, cannot fail to be greatly beneficial to mankind at large, but especially to the teachers and guides of the Church. Whoever shall consider attentively the numerous, the varied, and threatening dangers which the Christian religion has happily surmounted, will doubtless find himself more established in the belief of this religion and better prepared to withstand the assaults, the cavils, and insidious attacks of the profane. The many illustrious examples of virtue with which this history abounds are admirably suited to awaken pious emotions and to instil the love of God into lukewarm minds. Those wonderful revolutions which have occurred in every age of the Church, originating often from small beginnings, proclaim aloud the providence of God and the instability and vanity of all human things. Nor is it of small advantage to know the origin of the numerous and absurd opinions, superstitions, and errors which still prevail in many parts of the Christian world. For such knowledge will enable us to discover the truth more clearly, to prize it more, and to defend it better. Of the entertainment afforded by these and other parts of Church history, I shall say nothing. have preferred the customary one, into centuries, because it is the one most approved of, though it is not free from objections. 23. No small part of these objections, however, will be removed, if we superadd a more general division of time, or one into longer periods, bounded by certain great revolutions and changes in the state of the Church. Accordingly the whole of the following history is divided into four books. The first contains the history of the Church of Christ from its commencement to the time of Constantine the Great; the second extends it from Constantine to Charlemagne; the third continues it to the time when Luther began the Reformation in Germany; the fourth and last brings it down to our own times." 24. Ecclesiastical history treats, moreover, as we have already seen, of various distinct but kindred subjects which may properly be arranged under separate heads. Historians have adopted different classifications, as their taste or their design in writing pointed out. The distribution which I prefer has been already indicated, and need not here be repeated. 1 The reader will find an admirable sketch of the history and of the preparation requisite for its study, advantages resulting from a knowledge of ecclesiastical in the Introduction to the Elements of Church History, premature death has unhappily prevented the compleby the late lamented Dr. Welsh of Edinburgh, whose tion of this excellent work. - R. 21. But especially public instructors and the ministers of religion may from this on the early part of the eighteenth.—B. 2 Mosheim closes these INSTITUTES with the seren teenth century, adding a single supplementary chapter |