SECTION II. THE HISTORY OF THE MODERN CHURCHES. CHAPTER I. II. The example of the landgrave of Hesse was followed, in 1614, by John Sigismund, The History of the Lutheran Church. elector of Brandenburg, who also renounced II. We have already seen the calamities Lutheranism, and embraced the communion and vexations that were entailed on the Lu- of the reformed churches, though with certheran church, by the persecuting spirit of the tain restrictions, and without employing any Roman pontiffs, and the intemperate zeal of acts of mere authority to engage his subjects the house of Austria, which, on many occa- in the same measure; for it is observable, that sions, showed too great a propensity to second this prince did not adopt all the peculiar doctheir ambitious and despotic measures; we trines of Calvinism. He introduced, indeed, shall, therefore, at present confine our view to into his dominions the Genevan form of pubthe losses it sustained from other quarters. lic worship, and embraced the sentiments of The cause of Lutheranism suffered considera- the reformed churches concerning the person bly by the desertion of Maurice, landgrave of of Christ, and the manner in which he is preHesse, a prince of uncommon genius and sent in the eucharist, as they appeared to him learning, who not only embraced the doctrine much more conformable to reason and Scripand discipline of the reformed church, but ture than the doctrine of the Lutherans relaalso, in 1604, removed the Lutheran professors ting to these points. But, on the other hand, from their places in the university of Marpurg, he refused to admit the Calvinistical doctrines and the doctors of that communion from the of divine grace and absolute decrees; and, on churches they had in his dominions. After this account, he neither sent deputies to the taking this vigorous step, on account of the synod of Dordrecht, nor adopted the decisions obstinacy with which the Lutheran clergy op- of that famous assembly on these intricate subposed his design, he took particular care to jects. This way of thinking was so exactly have his subjects instructed in the doctrine of followed by the successors of Sigismund, that the Helvetic church, and introduced into the they never would allow the opinion of Calvin, Hessian churches the form of public worship concerning the divine decrees, to be considered that was observed at Geneva. This plan was as the public and received doctrine of the renot executed without some difficulty; but it formed churches in their dominions. It must acquired a complete degree of stability and con- be particularly mentioned, to the honour of sistence in 1619, when deputies were sent by this wise prince, that he granted to his subthis prince to the synod of Dordrecht, with ex-jects an entire liberty in religious matters, and press orders to consent, in the name of the Hessian churches, to all the acts that should be passed in that assembly. The doctors of the reformed church, who lived at this period, strenuously defended the measures followed by Maurice, and maintained, that in all these transactions he observed the strictest principles of equity, and discovered an uncommon spirit of moderation. Perhaps the doc-ed to prevent jealousy and envy, and to satistors of modern days may view this matter in a different light. They will acknowledge, perhaps without hesitation, that if this illustrious prince had been more influenced by the sentiments of the wisest of the reformed doctors, concerning the conduct we ought to observe toward those who differ from us in religious matters, and less by his own will and humour, he would have ordered many things otherwise than he actually did.‡ left it to their unrestrained and free choice, whether they would remain in the profession of Lutheranism, or follow the example of their sovereign; nor did he exclude from civil honours and employments, or from the usual marks of his protection and favour, those who continued in the faith of their ancestors. This lenity and moderation, which seemed so adapt fy both parties, aid not however produce this natural and salutary effect; nor were they sufficient to restrain within the bounds of decency and charity several warm and inconsiderate votaries of Lutheranism. These over-zealous persons, who breathed the violent spirit of an age in which matters of consequence were usually carried on with vehemence and rigour, deemed it intolerable and highly provoking, that the Lutherans and Calvinists should enjoy the same honours and prerogatives; that all injurious terms and odious comparisons should be banished from religious debates; that the controverted points in theology should ether be entirely omitted in the public discourses of the clergy, or explained with a spirit of mo guage, may also consult Garth's Historischer Bericht von dem Religions-Wesen in Furstenthum Hessen-Cyprian's Unterricht von Kirchlicher Vereinigung der Protestanten, and the Acts published in the Unschuld. Nachrich. An. 1749. 230 HISTORY OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. desty and Christian charity; that certain rites || which displeased the Calvinists should be totally abolished; and that they who differed in opinion should be obliged to live in peace, concord, and the mutual exchange of good offices. If it was unreasonable in them to be offended at injunctions of this nature, it was still more so to discover their indignation in a manner, that excited not only sharp and uncharitable debates, but also civil commotions and violent tumults, that disturbed considerably the tranquillity of the state, and nourished a spirit of sedition and revolt, which the labour of years was in vain employed to extinguish. In this troubled state of things, the divines of Saxony, and more especially those of Wittenberg, undertook to defend the Lutheran cause; but if it be acknowledged, on one hand, that their views were good, and their intentions upright, it must be owned, on the other, that their style was keen even to a degree of licentiousness, and their zeal warm beyond all measure. And, indeed, as it generally happens, their want of moderation injured, instead of promoting, the cause in which they had embarked; for it was in consequence of their violent proceedings, that the Form of Concord was suppressed in the territories of Brandenburg, and the subjects of that electorate were prohibited, by a solemn edict, from studying divinity in the university of Wittenberg.* III. It was deplorable to see two churches, which had discovered an equal degree of pious zeal and fortitude in throwing off the despotic yoke of Rome, divided among themselves, and living in discords that were highly detrimental to the interests of religion and the welfare of society. Hence several eminent divines and leading men, both among the Lutherans and Calvinists, anxiously sought some method of uniting the two churches, though divided in their opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity and ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge of human nature and human passions served to persuade these wise and pacific mediators, that a perfect uniformity of religious opinion was not practicable, and that it The edicts of Sigismund and his successors, re lating to this change in the state f religion in Bran denburg, have been several times republished in one collection. Beside these, there are many books, treatises, and pamphlets, which give an account of this remarkable transaction, and of which the reader will find a complete list in the German work, entitled, Unschuldigen Nachrichten, An. 1745, p. 34; An. 1746, p. 326, compared with Jo. Carol. Kocheri. Biblioth. Theolog. Symbol. p. 312.-The reader who desires to attain a perfect acquaintance with this controversy, and to be able to weigh the merits of the cause, by having a true state of the case before him, will do well to consult Arnold's Histor. Eccles. et Hæret. p. ii. lib. xvii. c. vii. p. 965.-Cyprian's Unterricht von der Vereinigung der Protestant. p. 75, and Append. Monum. p. 225. Unschuldigen Nachrichten, An. 1727, p. 1069, et An. 1732, p. 715. They who affirm that the elector's ultimate end, in changing the face of religion in his dominions, was not the prospect of augmenting and extending his authority, found their opinion rather on conjecture than on demonstration; nor do they confirm this assertion by testimonies that are sufficient to produce full conviction. It must, however, be acknowledged, on the other hand, that their conjectures have neither an absurd nor an improbable aspect. SECT. II. would be entirely extravagant to imagine that either of these communities could ever be brought to embrace universally, and without limitation, the doctrines of the other. They made it, therefore, their principal business to persuade those, whose spirits were inflamed with the heat of controversy, that the points in debate between the churches were not essential to true religion;-that the fundamental doctrines of Christianity were received and professed in both communions;-and that the difference of opinion between the contending parties, turned either upon points of an abstruse and incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of indifference, which did not tend to render mankind wiser or better, and in which the interests of genuine piety were in no respects concerned. Those who viewed things in this point of light, were obliged to acknowledge, that the diversity of opinion was by no means a sufficient reason for the separation of the churches, and that in consequence they were called, by the dictates of that Gospel which they both professed, to live not only in the mutual exercise of Christian charity, but also to enter into the fraternal bonds of church communion. The greatest part of the reformed doctors seemed disposed to acknowledge, that the errors of the Lutherans were not of a momentous nature, or of a pernicious tendency, and that the fundamental doctrines of Christianity had not undergone any remarkable alteration in that communion; and thus on their side an important step was made toward peace and union between the churches. But the majority of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they could not form a like judgment with respect to the doctrine of the reformed churches; they maintained tenaciously the importance of the points which divided the two communions, and affirmed, that a considerable part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental principles of all religion and virtue. It is not at all surprising, that the opposite party branded this steadiness and constancy with the epithets of morose obstinacy, supercilious arrogance, and the like odious denominations. The Lutherans were not behind-hand with their adversaries in acrimony of style; they recriminated with vehemence, and charged their accusers with instances of misconduct, different in kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them with having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under ambiguous expressions, the real doctrine of the reformed churches; they observed farther, that their adversaries, notwithstanding their consummate prudence and circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many occasions, that their propensity to a reconciliation between the churches arose from views of private interest, rather than from a zeal for the public good. IV. Among the public transactions relative to the project of an union between the reformed and Lutheran churches, we must not omit mentioning the attempt made in 1615 by James I., king of Great Britain, to accomplish this salutary purpose. The person employed for this end by the British monarch, was Peter du Moulin, the most eminent among the Pro a still more extensive plan of religious union than those which have been mentioned; he proposed a reconciliation, not only between the Reformed and Lutheran churches, but also between these communions and that of Rome. For this purpose, he ordered a conference to be holden at Thorn, in 1645, the issue of which, as might naturally have been expected, was far from being favourable to the projected union; for the persons employed by the three churches to heal their divisions, or at least to calm their animosities, returned from this conference with a greater measure of party zeal, and a smaller portion of Christian charity, than they had brought to it. testant doctors in France; but this design was neither carried on with spirit, nor attended with success. Another attempt of the same pacific nature was made in 1631, in the synod of Charenton, in which an act was passed by the reformed doctors of that respectable assembly, declaring the Lutheran system of religion conformable with the spirit of true piety, and free from pernicious and fundamental errors. By this act, an opportunity was offered to the Lutherans of joining with the reformed church upon honourable terms, and of entering into the bonds both of civil and religious communion with their Calvinistical brethren. But this candid and charitable proceeding was attended with very little fruit, since few of the Lutherans were disposed to embrace the occa-in sion that was here so freely offered to them, of terminating the dissensions that separated the two churches. In the same year, a conference took place at Leipsic between the Saxon doctors, Koe, Lyser, and Hopfner, on one side, and some of the most eminent divines of HesseCassel and Brandenburg, on the other; to the end that, by exposing with fidelity and precision their respective doctrines, it might be more easily seen, what were the real obstacles to the union projected between the churches. This conference was conducted with decency and moderation, and the deliberations were neither disturbed by intemperate zeal nor by a proud spirit of contention and dispute; but that openness of heart, that mutual trust and confidence, which are so essential to the success of all kinds of pacification, were not manifested on this occasion; for, though the doctors of the reformed party exposed, with great precision and fairness, the tenets of their church, and even made several concessions, which the Lutherans themselves could scarcely expect; yet the latter, suspicious and fearful, and always apprehensive of schemes, formed by artifice under the mask of candour, to betray and ensnare them, did not dare to acknowledge, that they were satisfied with these explications and offers; and thus the conference broke up without having contributed in any respect to promote the salutary work of peace.§ To form a true idea of these pacific deliberations, of the reasons that gave rise to them, and of the principles by which they were conducted, it will be necessary to study the civil history of this interesting period with attention and care. V. Uladislaus IV., king of Poland, formed * See Le Vassor, Hist. de Louis XIII. tom. ii. part ii. King James, who would have abandoned the most important and noble design, at any time, to discuss a point of grammar or theology, or to gain a point of interest for himself or his minions, neglected this union of the Lutheran and reformed churches, which he had begun to promote with such an appearance of piety and zeal, Benoit, Histoira de l'Edit de Nantes, tom. ii. p. 544.-Aymon, Actes des Synodes Nationaux des Eglises Reformees de France, tom. ii. p. 500.-Ittigir Dissert. de Synodi Carentoniensis Indulgentia erga Lutheranos. Lips. 1705. 4to. § Timanni Gesseli Historia Sacra et Ecclesiastica. p. ii. in addendis, p. 597-613, in which the acts of this conference are published.-Jo. Wolfg. Jaegeri Historia Sæculi XVII. decenn. iv. p. 497. This testimony of Dr. Mosheim, who was himself a Lutheran, is singularly honourable to the reformed doctors. The conference which took place at Cassel 1661, by the order of William VI., landgrave of Hesse, between Musæus and Henichius, professors at Rintelen, on the side of the Lutherans, and Curtius and Heine, of the university of Marpurg, on that of the reformed, was attended with better success; and, if it did not bring about a perfect uniformity of opinion, it produced what was more desirable, a spirit of Christian charity and forbearance. For these candid doctors, after having diligently examined the nature, and weighed the importance, of the controversies that divided the two churches, embraced each other with reciprocal marks of affection and esteem, and mutually declared that their respective doctrines were less different than was generally imagined, and that this difference was not of sufficient moment to prevent their fraternal union and concord. But it unfortunately happened, that these moderate theologians could not infuse the same spirit of peace and charity that animated them, into their Lutheran brethren, nor persuade them to view the diversities of opinion that divided the Protestant churches, in the same indulgent point of view in which they had considered them in the conference at Cassel. On the contrary, this their moderation drew upon them the hatred of almost all the Lutherans; and they were loaded with bitter reproaches in a multitude of pamphlets, that were composed expressly to refute their sentiments, and to censure their conduct. The pains that were taken after this period by the princes of the house of Brandenberg, and more especially by Frederic William and his son Frederic, in order to compose the dissensions and animosity that divided the Protestants, and particularly to promote a fraternal union between the reformed and Lutheran churches in the Prussian territories, and in the rest of their dominions, are well known; and it is also equally notorious, that innumerable difficulties opposed the execution of this salutary design. *The writers who have given accounts of the conferences of Thorn and Cassel, are enumerated by Sagittarius, in his Introd. ad Hist. Ecclesiast. tom. ii. p. 1604. See also Jaegeri Historia Sæculi XVII. decenn. v. p. 689, and decenn. vii. p. 160, where the acts of the two conferences are extant.-Add to these Jo. Alphons. Turretini Nubes Testium pro moderato in Rebus theologicis Judicio, p. 178.-There is an ample account of the conference of Cassel in the life of Musaus, given by Moller, in his Cimbria Litera ta, tom. ii. p. 566. The reader will find, in the same work, an accurate index of the accounts of this con. ference, published on both sides. VI. Beside these public conferences, holden || plexities and distress, exhausted by unsuccessby the authority of princes, in order to promote ful labour, and oppressed and dejected by injuunion and concord among Protestants, a mul-rious treatment, perceived, by a painful expetitude of individuals, animated by a spirit of rience, that he had undertaken a task which true Christian charity, embarked in this pious was beyond the power of a private person, and cause on their own private authority, and of- spent the remainder of his days in repose and fered their mediation and good offices to recon-obscurity at Cassel.* cile the two churches. It is true, indeed, that these peace-makers were, generally speaking, Dureus, who, notwithstanding the general upIt may not be improper to observe here, that of the reformed church, and that those among rightness of his intentions, was sometimes defithe Lutherans, who appeared in this amiable cient in ingenuous frankness, had annexed to character, were but few, in comparison with his plan of reconciliation certain doctrines the great number of Calvinists that favoured which, were they susceptible of proof, would this benevolent but arduous design. The most serve as a foundation for the union, not only eminent Calvinistical advocate of peace was of the Lutherans and Calvinists, but also of all John Dureus, a native of Scotland, justly cele- the different sects that bear the Christian name; brated on account of his universal benevolence, for, among other things, he maintained, that solid piety, and extensive learning, but, at the the Apostles' Creed was a complete body of same time, more remarkable for genius and divinity; that the Ten Commandments formed memory, than for nicety of discernment and a perfect system of morals, and the Lord's accuracy of judgment, as might be evinced by Prayer a comprehensive series of petitions for several proofs and testimonies, were this the all the blessings contained in the divine promiproper place for discussions of that nature. Be ses. Now if this notion, that these sacred that as it will, never, perhaps, were greater compositions contain all that is essential to zeal and perseverance manifested than by Du- faith, obedience, and devotion, had been unireus, who, during a period of forty-three years,*versally entertained, or evidently demonstrated, suffered vexations and underwent labours which required the firmest resolution and the most inexhaustible patience; wrote, exhorted, admonished, entreated, and disputed; in a word, tried every method that human wisdom could suggest, to put an end to the dissensions and animosities that reigned among the Protestant churches. It was not merely by the persuasive eloquence of his pen, or by forming plans in the silence of the closet, that this worthy divine performed the task which his benevolence and zeal engaged him to undertake; his activity and industry were equal to his zeal; he travelled through all the countries in Europe, where the Protestant religion had obtained any footing; he formed connexions with the doctors of both parties; he addressed himself to kings, princes, magistrates, and ministers; and by representing, in lively and striking colours, the utility and importance of the plan he had formed, hoped to engage them more or less in this good cause, or at least to derive some succour from their influence and protection. But here his views were considerably disappointed; *See Coleri Historia Joh. Durai, to which many for, though his undertaking was generally ap- cords, and also from documents that have not yet important additions might be made from public replauded, and though he met with a favourable seen the light. Some records and documents of the and civil reception from the greatest part of kind here referred to, have been published by Hathose to whom he addressed himself, he found sæus, in his Bibliotheca Bremens. Theologico-Philovery few who were seriously disposed to allevi- logica, tom. i. p. 911, and tom. iv. p. 683. A still ate his labours, by lending him their assistance, da to his Historia Ecclesiastica, tom. ii. p. 614. The greater number are given by Gesselius, in the addenand seconding his attempts by their influence transactions of Duræus at Marpurg, are mentioned and counsels. Some, suspecting that his fer- by Schenok, in his Vita Professorum Theologia vent and extraordinary zeal arose from myste-learned from the letters of Lackman and Lossius, Marpurg. p. 207. His attempts in Holstein may be rious and sinister motives, and apprehending which are joined together in the same volume. His that he had secretly formed a design of draw- exploits in Prussia and Poland are recorded by ing the Lutherans into a snare, even attacked sis, p. 127; and his labours in Switzerland, Denmark, Jablonsky, in his Historia Consensus Sendomirienhim in their writings with animosity and bit- and the Palatinate, are mentioned respectively in terness, and loaded him with the sharpest in- the Museum Helveticum, tom. iii. iv. v. by Elswich, vectives and reproaches: so that this well-mean-in his Fasciculus Epistol. Theolog. p. 147, and by ing man, neglected at length by those of his Jaegeri Historia Sæculi XVII. decenn. vii. p. 171; Seelen, in the Delicie Epistol. p. 353. See also own communion, opposed and rejected by the the Englische Reformations Historie, by Bohm, and followers of Luther, involved in various per- der my direction at Helmstadt, in 1744, by Benzelius, more especially an account of Duræus, published un * From the year 1631 to 1674. it would not have been a chimerical project aim at a reconciliation of all Christian churches upon this basis, and to render these compositions the foundation of their coalition and the bond of their union. But it would have been highly chimerical to expect, that the Christian sects would universally adopt this notion, or be pleased to see the doctrines of Christianity reduced to such general principles. It is farther to be observed, with respect to Dureus, that he showed a peculiar propensity toward the sentiments of the Mystics and Quakers, on actory and pacific project. Like them, he placed count of their tendency to favour his conciliathe essence of religion in the ascent of the soul to God, in calling forth the hidden word, in fanning the divine spark that resides in the recesses of the human mind; and, in consequence of this system, he was intimately persuaded, that differences merely in theological opinions did not at all concern the essence of true piety. VII. Among the Lutherans, those who ap and entitled, Dissertatio de Johan. Duræo, maxime de Actis ejus Suecanis. ry, with whatever secrecy and circumspection it may be disguised, is considered as an enormous and capital crime; and that they preserved their religious sentiments and doctrines pure and uncorrupted amidst the contagion of Romish superstition, which they always beheld with aversion and horror. In those countries which are inhabited by persons of different communions, and whose sovereigns are members of the Romish church, we have numberless instances of the cruelty and injustice practised by the papists against those who dissent from them; and these cruelties are exercised under a pretext suggested by the most malevolent bigotry, which represents these dissenters as seditious subjects, and consequently as worthy of the most rigorous treatment. And yet it is certain that, amidst all these vexations, the Lutheran church stood its ground; nor could either the craft or fury of its enemies, in any country, deprive it entirely of its rights and privileges. It may also be observed, that the doctrine of Luther was carried into Asia, Africa, and America, by several persons who fixed their habitations in those distant regions, and was also introduced into some parts of Europe, where it had hitherto been unknown. peared the most zealous in this pacific cause, || were John Matthias,* bishop of Strengnes in Sweden, and George Calixtus, professor of divinity at Helmstadt, whom Dureus had animated with a portion of his charitable and indulgent spirit. The former was a man of capacity and merit; the latter was eminently distinguished among the divines of this century, by his learning, genius, probity, and candour; but both failed in the arduous undertaking in which they had engaged, and suffered considerably in their attempts to promote the cause of unity and concord. The Olive-branches of Matthias, who entitled thus his pacific productions, were, by a royal edict, publicly condemned and suppressed in Sweden; and their author, in order to appease the fury of his enemics, was obliged to resign his bishopric, and pass the rest of his days in retirement. The zeal of Calixtus, in calming the tumultuous and violent spirit of the contending parties, drew upon him the bitterest reproaches, and the warmest animosity and resentment from those who were more bent on maintaining their peculiar opinions, than in promoting that charity which is the end of the commandment; and, while he was labouring to remove all sects and divisions, he appeared to many of his IX. When we turn our view to the internal brethren in the light of a new sectary, who state of the Lutheran church during this cenwas founding the most pernicious of all sects, tury, we shall find it improved in various reeven that of the Syncretists, who were suppos- spects. Though several blemishes yet remained to promote peace and concord at the ex-ed that clouded its lustre, it must be acknowpense of truth. We shall, before we finish this chapter, endeavour to give a more particular and circumstantial account of the sentiments and trials of this great man, to whose charge many other things were laid, beside the crime of endeavouring to unite the disciples of the same master in the amiable bonds of charity, concord, and mutual forbearance, and whose opinions and designs excited warm contests in the Lutheran church. VIII. The external state of the Lutheran church at this period was attended with various circumstances of prosperity, among which we may reckon its standing firm against the assaults of Rome, whose artifice and violence were in vain employed to effect its destruction. It is well known, that a very considerable number of Lutherans resided in those provinces where the public exercise of their religion was prohibited. It has more especially been shown by the late memorable emigration of the Saltzburgers, that a still greater number of them lay concealed in that land of despotism and bigotry, where the smallest dissent from pope Matthias had been chaplain to Gustavus Adolphus, and was afterwards appointed, by that prince, preceptor to his daughter Christina, so famous in history, on account of the whimsical peculiarities of her character, her taste for learning, and her desertion of the Swedish throne and the Protestant religion. tRami Olive Septentrionalis. tom. ii. p. 63. For an account of the persecuted Lutherans in the archbishopric of Saltzburg, see Burnet's Travels. See more especially a famous Latin discourse, entitled, Commentariolus Theologicus de non toler andis in Religione Dissentientibus pub. at Tubin ledged, to the honour of the Lutherans, that they cultivated all the branches of literature, both sacred and profane, with uncommon industry and success, and made several improvements in the sciences, which are too well known to stand in need of a particular mention, and of which a circumstantial enumeration would be inconsistent with the brevity required in an historical compendium. But if it cannot be denied, on one hand, that the cause of religion gained by these improvements in learning, it must be owned, on the other, that some branches of science were perverted by injudicious or ill-designing men, to corrupt the pure simplicity of genuine Christianity, and to render its doctrines abstruse and intricate. Thus it too often happens in life, that the best things are the most egregiously abused. About the commencement of this century, the sciences chiefly cultivated in the schools were logic and metaphysics, though the manner in which they were treated was almost entirely destitute of elegance, simplicity, and precision. But, in process of time, the scene changed in the seminaries of learning; and the more entertaining and agreeable branches of literature, that polish wit, excite taste, exercise judgment, and enrich memory, such as civil and natural history, philology, antiquities, criticism, and eloquence, gained the ascendency. Both these kinds of knowledge acquired also a more graceful, consistent, and regular form than that under which they had hitherto appeared. But it unfortunately happened, that, while the boundaries of science were extended from day to day, and new discoveries and improvements were constantly enriching the republic of letters, the credit of learning began sensibly to decrease, and learned men seemed gradually to lose |