assumes the appellation of Preface or Advertisement; and not unfrequently two are employed, one under the name of Preface, and another, more closely connected with the main work, under that of Introduction. The rules which have been laid down already will apply equally to that preliminary course of argument of which Introductions often consist. The writers before Aristotle are censured by him for inaccuracy, in placing under the head of Introductions, as properly belonging to them, many things which are not more appropriate in the beginning than elsewhere; as, e. g. the contrivances for exciting the hearers' attention; which, as he observes, is an improper arrangement; since, though such an Introduction may sometimes be required, it is, generally speaking, any where else rather than in the beginning, that the attention is likely to flag. Introductions not to first. The rule laid down by Cicero, (De Orat.) not to compose the Introduction first, but to consider first the main argument, and let that suggest be composed the Exordium, is just and valuable; for otherwise, as he observes, seldom any thing will suggest itself but vague generalities; "common" topics, as he calls them, i. e. what would equally well suit several different compositions; whereas, the Introduction, which is composed last, will naturally spring out of the main subject, and appear appropriate to it. § 2. 1st, One of the objects most frequently proposed in an Introduction, is, to shew that the subject in Introducquestion is important, curious, or otherwise tive. tion inquisi interesting, and worthy of attention. This may be called an "Introduction inquisitive."* Introduction paradoxical. 2dly, It will frequently happen also, when the point to be proved or explained is one which may be very fully established, or on which there is little or no doubt, that it may nevertheless be strange, and different from what might have been expected; in which case it will often have a good effect in rousing the attention, to set forth as strongly as possible this paradoxical character, and dwell on the seeming improbability of that which must, after all, be admitted. This may be called an "Introduction paradoxical."† * See Tacitus in the opening of his " History ;" and the beginning of Paley's "Natural Theology." "If you should see a flock of pigeons in a field of corn and if (instead of each picking where and what it liked, taking just as much as it wanted, and no more) you should see ninety-nine of them gathering all they got into a heap; reserving nothing for themselves, but the chaff and the refuse; keeping this heap for one, and that the weakest, perhaps worst, of the flock; sitting round, and looking on all the winter, whilst this one was devouring, throwing about, and wasting it; and if a pigeon, more hardy or hungry than the rest, touched a grain of the hoard, all the others instantly flying upon it, and tearing it to pieces; if you should see this, you would see nothing more than what is every day practised and established among men. Among men, you see the ninety and nine toiling and scraping together a heap of superfluities for one, (and this one too, oftentimes the feeblest and worst of the whole set, a child, a woman, a madman, or a fool ;) getting nothing for themselves all the while, but a little of the coarsest of the provision, which their own industry produces; looking quietly on, while they see the fruits of all their labour spent or spoiled; and if one of the number take or touch a particle of the hoard, the others joining against him, and hanging him for the theft. "There must be some very important advantages to account for an institution, which, in the view of it above given, is so paradoxical and unnatural. "The principal of these advantages are Paley's Moral Philosovhu. book iii. nart i. c the following: " &c.— 1 and 2. 3dly, What may be called an "Introduction corrective," is also in frequent use; viz. to shew Introduction that the subject has been neglected, misunder- corrective. stood, or misrepresented by others. This will, in many cases, remove a most formidable obstacle in the hearer's mind, the anticipation of triteness, if the subject be, or may be supposed to be, a hacknied one and it may also serve to remove or loosen such prejudices as might be adverse to the favourable reception of our Arguments.. 4thly, It will often happen also, that there may be need to explain some peculiarity in the mode Introduction of reasoning to be adopted; to guard against preparatory. some possible mistake as to the object proposed; or to apologise for some deficiency: this may be called the "Introduction preparatory.' 5thly, and lastly, in many cases there will be occasion for what be called a may 66 Narrative Introduction," to put the reader or hearer in Introduction narrative. possession of the outline of some transaction, or the description of some state of things, to which references and allusions are to be made in the course of the Composition. Thus, in Preaching, it is generally found advisable to detail, or at least briefly to sum up, a portion of Scripture-history, or a parable, when either of these is made the subject of a Sermon. Two or more of the Introductions that have been mentioned are often combined; especially in the Preface to a work of any length. And very often the Introduction will contain appeals to various passions and feelings in the hearers; especially a feeling of approbation towards the speaker, or of prejudice against an opponent who has preceded him; but this is, as Aristotle has remarked, by no means confined to Introductions.* * It has not been thought necessary to treat of Conclusion, Peroration, or Epilogue, as a distinct head: the general rules, that a Conclusion should be neither sudden and abrupt, (so as to induce the hearer to say, "I did not know he was going to leave off,") nor, again, so long as to excite the hearer's impatience after he has been led to expect an end, being so obvious as hardly to need being mentioned. The matter of which the concluding part of a Composition consists, will, of course, vary according to the subject and the occasion but that which is most appropriate, and consequently most frequent, (in Compositions of any considerable length,) is a Recapitulation, either of a part or the whole of the arguments that have been used; respecting which a remark has been made at the end of chap. iii. § 9. that may be Any thing relative to the Feelings and the Will, especially appropriate to the Conclusion, will be mentioned in its proper place. PART II OF PERSUASION. CHAP. I. Introductory. § 1. Analysis of PERSUASION, properly so called, i. e. the art of influencing the Will, is the next point to be considered. And Rhetoric is often regarded (as was formerly remarked) in a more limited sense, as conversant about this head alone. But even, according to that view, the rules above laid down will be found not the less relevant; since the Conviction of the understanding (of which I have hitherto been treating) is an essential part of Persuasion; and will generally need to be effected by the Arguments of the Writer or Speaker. For in order that the Will may be influenced, two things are requisite ; viz. 1. that the proposed Object should appear desirable; and 2. that the Means suggested should be proved to be conducive to the attainment of that object; and this last, evidently must depend on a process of Reasoning. In order, e. g. to induce the Greeks to unite their efforts against the Persian invader, it was necessary both to prove that cooperation could alone render their resis |